The study analyses possible parallels of the microbialite-known structures with a set of similar settings selected by a systematic investigation from the wide record and data set of images shot by NASA rovers. Terrestrial cases involve structures both due to bio-mineralization processes and those induced by bacterial metabolism, that occur in a dimensional field longer than 0.1 mm, at micro, meso and macro scales. The study highlights occurrence on Martian sediments of widespread structures like microspherules, often organized into some higher-order settings. Such structures also occur on terrestrial stromatolites in a great variety of ‘Microscopic Induced Sedimentary Structures’, such as voids, gas domes and layer deformations of microbial mats. We present a suite of analogies so compelling (i.e. different scales of morphological, structural and conceptual relevance), to make the case that similarities between Martian sediment structures and terrestrial microbialites are not all cases of ‘Pareidolia’.

The last universal common ancestor (LUCA) has been considered as the branching point on which Bacteria, Archaea and Eukaryotes have diverged. However, the increased information relating to viruses’ genomes and the perception that many virus genes do not have homologs in other organisms opened a new discussion. Based on these facts, there has emerged the idea of an early LUCA that should be moved further into the past to include viruses, implicating that life should have originated before the appearance of cellular life forms. Another point of view from advocates of the RNA-world suggests that the origin of life happened a long time before organisms were capable of organizing themselves into cellular entities. Relevant data about the origin of ribosomes indicate that the catalytic unit of the large ribosomal subunit is what should actually be considered as the turning point that separated chemistry from biology. Other researchers seem to think that a tRNA was probably some sort of a strange attractor on which life has originated. Here we propose a theoretical synthesis that tries to provide a crosstalk among the theories and define important points on which the origin of life could have been originated and made more complex, taking into account gradualist assumptions. Thus, discussions involving the origin of biological activities in the RNA-world might lead into a world of progenotes on which viruses have been taken part until the appearance of the very first cells. Along this route of complexification, we identified some key points on which researchers may consider life as an emerging principle.

Astrobiology is the study of the past, current and future potential for life in the Universe and has been fascinated with the possibility of life on Mars since the late 1800s. Because of the potential for life on Mars it is vital to understand the role perchlorates may play in that potential.

We review the latest findings on extra-solar planets and their potential of having environmental conditions that could support Earth-like life. Focusing on planets orbiting red dwarf (RD) stars, the most abundant stellar type in the Milky Way, we show that including RDs as potential life supporting host stars could increase the probability of finding biotic planets by a factor of up to a thousand, and reduce the estimate of the distance to our nearest biotic neighbour by up to 10. We argue that binary and multiple star systems need to be taken into account when discussing habitability and the abundance of biotic exoplanets, in particular RDs in such systems. Early considerations indicated that conditions on RD planets would be inimical to life, as their habitable zones would be so close to the host star as to make planets tidally locked. This was thought to cause an erratic climate and expose life forms to flares of ionizing radiation. Recent calculations show that these negative factors are less severe than originally thought. It has also been argued that the lesser photon energy of the radiation of the relatively cool RDs would not suffice for oxygenic photosynthesis (OP) and other related energy expending reactions. Numerous authors suggest that OP on RD planets may evolve to utilize photons in the infrared. We however argue, by analogy to the evolution of OP and the environmental physiology and distribution of land-based vegetation on Earth, that the evolutionary pressure to utilize infrared radiation would be small. This is because vegetation on RD planets could enjoy continuous illumination of moderate intensity, containing a significant component of photosynthetic 400–700 nm radiation. We conclude that conditions for OP could exist on RD planets and consequently the evolution of complex life might be possible. Furthermore, the huge number and the long lifetime of RDs make it more likely to find planets with photosynthesis and life around RDs than around Solar type stars.

In the present work, it is shown that thermodynamically feasible polymerization of cyanomethanol, which can be formed from formaldehyde and hydrogen cyanide, can lead to synthesis of polypeptides as well as to the previously reported synthesis of RNA. If the polymerization takes place on a one-dimensional feature of a mineral, such as for example a crack on its surface, the concept of quasi-chirality is introduced to describe the adsorbed polypeptide. This, in principle, would lead to formation of proteins that are completely homochiral in their alpha carbon groups. The concept of quasi-chirality can also be introduced in the condensation of glycine under similar conditions to form a polypeptide. This again leads to proteins completely chiral in their alpha carbon groups.

A series of experiments was carried out previously on board of the International Space Station in ‘EXPOSE-R’, a multi-user expose facility, provided by European Space Agency attached to the external surface of the Russian Segment. In one experiment, spores of microorganisms and species of higher plant seeds, in heat-sealed polymer bags were irradiated by solar radiation passed through MgF2 windows in a high space vacuum. After sample exposure, it was found that in many cases the inner surfaces of windows were contaminated. Analysis of the contamination revealed the presence of chemical groups CH2, CH3, NH, OH, C═O, Si–CH3 (Demets et al. in 2015). Their presence in deposits was explained by photofixation of gaseous precursors – some of the vapours of glues and additives in polymeric materials in the core facility of ‘Expose-R’. Carbon-, oxygen- and silicon-containing groups may be deposited from outer intrinsic atmosphere. This atmosphere is connected with sample compartments and core facility. However, the presence of NH groups on inner surfaces of windows was not expected. This paper shows that the process responsible for carbon-, nitrogen- and oxygen-containing group formation can be a photopolymerization of caprolactam, which is released from the outer Nylon 6 layer of polymer bags under Solar vacuum ultraviolet radiation.

Mars landed and orbiter missions have instrumentation capable of detecting oxychlorine phases (e.g. perchlorate, chlorate) on the surface. Perchlorate (~0.6 wt%) was first detected by the Wet Chemistry Laboratory in the surface material at the Phoenix Mars Landing site. Subsequent analyses by the Thermal Evolved Gas Analyser aboard the same lander detected an oxygen release (~465°C) consistent with the thermal decomposition of perchlorate. Recent thermal analysis by the Mars Science Laboratory's Sample Analysis at Mars instrument has also indicated the presence of oxychlorine phases (up to 1.2 wt%) in Gale Crater materials. Despite being at detectable concentrations, the Chemistry and Mineralogy (CheMin) X-ray diffractometer has not detected oxychlorine phases. This suggests that Gale Crater oxychlorine may exist as poorly crystalline phases or that perchlorate/chlorate mixtures exist, so that individual oxychlorine concentrations are below CheMin detection limits (~1 wt%). Although not initially designed to detect oxychlorine phases, reinterpretation of Viking Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometer data also suggest that oxychlorine phases are present in the Viking surface materials. Remote near-infrared spectral analyses by the Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM) instrument indicate that at least some martian recurring slope lineae (RSL) have spectral signatures consistent with the presence of hydrated perchlorates or chlorates during the seasons when RSL are most extensive. Despite the thermal emission spectrometer, Thermal Emission Imaging System, Observatoire pour la Minéralogie, l'Eau, les Glaces et l'Activité and CRISM detection of hundreds of anhydrous chloride (~10–25 vol%) deposits, expected associated oxychlorine phases (>5–10 vol%) have not been detected. Total Cl and oxychlorine data sets from the Phoenix Lander and the Mars Science Laboratory missions could be used to develop oxychlorine versus total Cl correlations, which may constrain oxychlorine concentrations at other locations on Mars by using total Cl determined by other missions (e.g. Viking, Pathfinder, MER and Odyssey). Development of microfluidic or ‘lab-on-a-chip’ instrumentation has the potential to be the next generation analytical capability used to identify and quantify individual oxychlorine species on future landed robotic missions to Mars.

The subsurface exploration of other planetary bodies can be used to unravel their geological history and assess their habitability. On Mars in particular, present-day habitable conditions may be restricted to the subsurface. Using a deep subsurface mine, we carried out a program of extraterrestrial analog research – MINe Analog Research (MINAR). MINAR aims to carry out the scientific study of the deep subsurface and test instrumentation designed for planetary surface exploration by investigating deep subsurface geology, whilst establishing the potential this technology has to be transferred into the mining industry. An integrated multi-instrument suite was used to investigate samples of representative evaporite minerals from a subsurface Permian evaporite sequence, in particular to assess mineral and elemental variations which provide small-scale regions of enhanced habitability. The instruments used were the Panoramic Camera emulator, Close-Up Imager, Raman spectrometer, Small Planetary Linear Impulse Tool, Ultrasonic drill and handheld X-ray diffraction (XRD). We present science results from the analog research and show that these instruments can be used to investigate in situ the geological context and mineralogical variations of a deep subsurface environment, and thus habitability, from millimetre to metre scales. We also show that these instruments are complementary. For example, the identification of primary evaporite minerals such as NaCl and KCl, which are difficult to detect by portable Raman spectrometers, can be accomplished with XRD. By contrast, Raman is highly effective at locating and detecting mineral inclusions in primary evaporite minerals. MINAR demonstrates the effective use of a deep subsurface environment for planetary instrument development, understanding the habitability of extreme deep subsurface environments on Earth and other planetary bodies, and advancing the use of space technology in economic mining.

The Great Filter interpretation of Fermi's great silence asserts that Npq is not a very large number, where N is the number of potentially life-supporting planets in the observable universe, p is the probability that a randomly chosen such planet develops intelligent life to the level of present-day human civilization, and q is the conditional probability that it then goes on to develop a technological supercivilization visible all over the observable universe. Evidence suggests that N is huge, which implies that pq is very small. Hanson (1998) and Bostrom (2008) have argued that the discovery of extraterrestrial life would point towards p not being small and therefore a very small q, which can be seen as bad news for humanity's prospects of colonizing the universe. Here we investigate whether a Bayesian analysis supports their argument, and the answer turns out to depend critically on the choice of prior distribution.

Carbonate minerals, likely of hydrothermal origins and included into orthopyroxenite, have been extensively studied in the ALH84001 meteorite. In this meteorite, nanocrystals comparable with those produced by magnetotactic bacteria have been found into a carbonate matrix. This leads naturally to a discussion of the role of such carbonates in panspermia theories. In this context, the present work sets the basis of a criterion to evaluate whether a carbonate matrix in a meteor entering a planetary atmosphere would be able to reach the surface. As a preliminary step, the composition of carbonate minerals in the ALH84001 meteorite is reviewed; in view of the predominance of Mg in these carbonates, pure magnesite (MgCO3) is proposed as a mineral model. This mineral is much more sensitive to high temperatures reached during an entry process, compared with silicates, due to facile decomposition into MgO and gaseous carbon dioxide (CO2). A most important quantity for further studies is therefore the decomposition rate expressed as CO2 evaporation rate J (molecules/m2 s). An analytical expression for J(T) is given using the Langmuir law, based on CO2 pressure in equilibrium with MgCO3 and MgO at the surface temperature T. Results suggest that carbonate minerals rich in magnesium may offer much better thermal protection to embedded biological matter than silicates and significantly better than limestone, which was considered in previous studies, in view of the heat absorbed by their decomposition even at moderate temperatures. This first study can be extended in the future to account for more complex compositions, including Fe and Ca.

Halophilic Archaea are known to tolerate multiple extreme conditions on Earth and have been proposed as models for astrobiology. In order to assess the importance of cold-adaptation of these microorganisms in surviving stratospheric conditions, we launched live, liquid cultures of two species, the mesophilic model Halobacterium sp. NRC-1 and the cold-adapted Antarctic isolate Halorubrum lacusprofundi ATCC 49239, on helium balloons. After return to Earth, the cold-adapted species showed nearly complete survival while the mesophilic species exhibited slightly reduced viability. Parallel studies found that the cold-adapted species was also better able to survive freezing and thawing in the laboratory. Genome-wide transcriptomic analysis was used to compare the two haloarchaea at optimum growth temperatures versus low temperatures supporting growth. The cold-adapted species displayed perturbation of a majority of genes upon cold temperature exposure, divided evenly between up-regulated and down-regulated genes, while the mesophile exhibited perturbation of only a fifth of its genes, with nearly two-thirds being down-regulated. These results underscore the importance of genetic responses of H. lacusprofundi to cold temperature for enhanced survival in the stratosphere.

The Martian regolith is known to contain a maximum of 0.5% (w/v) perchlorate (ClO4−) that is toxic for most living organisms. With such high concentrations of perchlorates on Mars, is there any possibility of life? Here, in order to search and identify potential organisms on Earth, which could survive the perchlorate levels on Mars, we have isolated four perchlorate resistant, halophilic/halotolerant bacterial species from Big Soda Lake (BSL) in Nevada, USA. The 16S ribosomal RNA sequences revealed that these halophiles belong to the genera Bacillus, Alkalibacillus and Halomonas. Growth curves were obtained using a saline medium with different concentrations of magnesium, sodium and/or calcium perchlorate salt to simulate the Martian eutectic brine water. All four species, BSL1-4, grew in high saline media in the presence of perchlorates. This is the first growth experiment using multiple perchlorate salts. BSL3 relative to Halomonas salifodinae showed high maximum growth (Optical Density) comparing with other isolates in the presence of 1% perchlorate salts. Also, BSL1 relative to Bacillus licheniformis survived in the presence of 5% Na-perchlorate, but growth was slower in the absence of Na-perchlorate. The results revealed that these new model microbes are capable of tolerating the hypothesized hypersaline and perchlorate-rich Martian subsurface water environment. Perchlorate-resistant halophile would serve as a new model to understand the biochemistry that may occur on Mars.

Next space missions will investigate the possibility of extinct or extant life on Mars. Studying the infrared spectral modifications, induced by thermal processing on different carbonate samples (recent shells and fossils of different ages), we developed a method able to discriminate biogenic carbonates from their abiogenic counterparts. The method has been successfully applied to microbialites, i.e. bio-induced carbonates deposits, and particularly to stromatolites, the laminated fabric of microbialites, some of which can be ascribed to among the oldest traces of biological activity known on Earth. These results are of valuable importance since such carbonates are linked to primitive living organisms that can be considered as good analogues for putative Martian life forms. Considering that the microstructures of biogenic carbonate are different from those of abiogenic origin, we investigated the micromorphology of shells, skeletal grains and microbialites at different scale with a scanning electron microscope. The results show that this line of research may provide an alternative and complementary approach to other techniques developed in the past by our group to distinguish biotic from abiotic carbonates. In this paper, we present some results that can be of valuable interest since they demonstrate the utility for a database of images concerning the structures and textures of relevant carbonate minerals. Such data may be useful for the analysis of Martian samples, coming from sample return missions or investigated by future in situ explorations, aimed to characterize the near-subsurface of Mars in search for past or present life.

It is well established that any properly conducted biophysical studies of proteins must take appropriate account of solvent. For water-soluble proteins it has been an article of faith that water is largely responsible for stabilizing the fold, a notion that has recently come under increasing scrutiny. Further, there are some instances when proteins are studied experimentally in the absence of solvent, as in matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization or electrospray mass spectrometry, for example, or in organic solvents for protein engineering purposes. Apart from these considerations, there is considerable speculation as to whether there is life on planets other than Earth, where conditions including the presence of water (both in liquid or vapour form and indeed ice), temperature and pressure may be vastly different from those prevailing on Earth. Mars, for example, has only 0.6% of Earth's mean atmospheric pressure which presents profound problems to protein structures, as this paper and a large corpus of experimental work demonstrate. Similar objections will most likely apply in the case of most exoplanets and other bodies such as comets whose chemistry and climate are still largely unknown.

This poses the question, how do proteins survive in these different environments? In order to cast some light on these issues we have conducted a series of molecular dynamics simulations on protein dehydration under a variety of conditions. We find that, while proteins undergoing dehydration can retain their integrity for a short duration they ultimately become disordered, and we further show that the disordering can be retarded if superficial water is kept in place on the surface. These findings are compared with other published results on protein solvation in an astrobiological and astrochemical setting. Inter alia, our results suggest that there are limits as to what to expect in terms of the existence of possible extraterrestrial forms as well to what can be achieved in experimental investigations on living systems despatched from Earth. This finding may appear to undermine currently held hopes that life will be found on nearby planets, but it is important to be aware that the presence of ice and water are by themselves not sufficient; there has to be an atmosphere which includes water vapour at a sufficiently high partial pressure for proteins to be active. A possible scenario in which there has been a history of adequate water vapour pressure which allowed organisms to prepare for a future desiccated state by forming suitable protective capsules cannot of course be ruled out.

The Mars Climate Simulation Chamber (MCSC) (GEO PAT 12 522/01) is designed for the investigation of the possible past and present habitability of Mars, as well as for the solution of practical tasks necessary for the colonization and Terraformation of the Planet. There are specific tasks such as the experimental investigation of the biological parameters that allow many terrestrial organisms to adapt to the imitated Martian conditions: chemistry of the ground, atmosphere, temperature, radiation, etc. MCSC is set for the simulation of the conduction of various biological experiments, as well as the selection of extremophile microorganisms for the possible Settlement, Ecopoesis and/or Terraformation purposes and investigation of their physiological functions. For long-term purposes, it is possible to cultivate genetically modified organisms (e.g., plants) adapted to the Martian conditions for future Martian agriculture to sustain human Mars missions and permanent settlements. The size of the chamber allows preliminary testing of the functionality of space-station mini-models and personal protection devices such as space-suits, covering and building materials and other structures. The reliability of the experimental biotechnological materials can also be tested over a period of years. Complex and thorough research has been performed to acquire the most appropriate technical tools for the accurate engineering of the MCSC and precious programmed simulation of Martian environmental conditions. This paper describes the construction and technical details of the equipment of the MCSC, which allows its semi-automated, long-term operation.

The Phoenix lander at Mars polar cap found appreciable levels of (per)chlorate salts, a mixture of perchlorate and chlorate salts of Ca, Fe, Mg and Na at levels of ~0.6% in regolith. These salts are highly hygroscopic and can form saturated brines through deliquescence, likely producing aqueous solutions with very low freezing points on Mars. To support planetary protection efforts, we have measured bacterial growth tolerance to (per)chlorate salts. Existing bacterial isolates from the Great Salt Plains of Oklahoma (NaCl-rich) and Hot Lake in Washington (MgSO4-rich) were tested in high concentrations of Mg, K and Na salts of chlorate and perchlorate. Strong growth was observed with nearly all of these salinotolerant isolates at 1% (~0.1 M) (per)chlorate salts, similar to concentrations observed in bulk soils on Mars. Growth in perchlorate salts was observed at concentrations of at least 10% (~1.0 M). Greater tolerance was observed for chlorate salts, where growth was observed to 2.75 M (>25%). Tolerance to K salts was greatest, followed by Mg salts and then Na salts. Tolerances varied among isolates, even among those within the same phylogenetic clade. Tolerant bacteria included genera that also are found in spacecraft assembly facilities. Substantial microbial tolerance to (per)chlorate salts is a concern for planetary protection since tolerant microbes contaminating spacecraft would have a greater chance for survival and proliferation, despite the harsh chemical conditions found near the surface of Mars.

The role of manganese oxides in concentrating organic moieties and offering catalytic activity for prebiotic reactions is investigated by studying their interaction with different aromatic amines such as aniline, p-chloroaniline, p-toluidine and p-anisidine. For all amines, metal oxides showed highest adsorption at neutral pH. The order of their adsorption capacity and affinity as revealed by the Langmuir constants was found to be manganosite (MnO) > bixbyite (Mn2O3) > hausmannite (Mn3O4) > and pyrolusite (MnO2). At alkaline pH, these manganese oxides offered their surfaces for oxidation of amines to form coloured oligomers. Analysis of the oxidation products by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry showed the formation of a dimer from p-anisidine and p-chloroaniline, while a trimer and tetramer is formed from p-toluidine and aniline, respectively. A reaction mechanism is proposed for the formation of the oligomers. While field-emission scanning electron microscopic studies confirm the binding phenomenon, the Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis suggests that the mechanism of binding of amines on the manganese oxides was primarily electrostatic. The adsorption behaviour of the studied aromatic amines followed the order: p-anisidine > p-toluidine > aniline > p-chloroaniline, which is related to the basicities and structure of the amines. Our studies confirmed the significance of the role of manganese oxides in prebiotic chemistry.

The earliest functional living system on Earth should have been able to reproduce an ordered configuration and a self-organization dynamics. It was capable of resisting a random variability in time and space to keep the functionality. Amino acids (AAs) and nucleobases generated from abiotic reactions as seen in laboratory-based experiments have demonstrated that molecular elements for life can be obtained by predictable physicochemical processes. However, a functional, self-organized living system needs complex molecular interactions to endure. In this paper, we address the transference of spatial information on highly enantiopure polymers as a critical condition to support the dynamics in a self-organized biogenic system. Previous scenarios have considered almost exclusively the information encoded in sequences as the suitable source of prebiotic information. But the spatial information transference has been poorly understood thus far. We provide the supporting statements which predict that the ordered configuration in a biogenic system should be significantly influenced by spatial information, instead of being exclusively generated by sequences of polymers. This theoretical approach takes into consideration that the properties of mutation and inheritance did not develop before definition of the structures that allow the management of information. Rather, we postulate that the molecular structures to store and transfer information must exist at first, in order to retain particular functional ‘meaning’, and subsequently, such information can be ‘inherited’ and eventually modified. Thus, the present contribution follows the theory that life was originated from an unstable prebiotic environment that involves the early spatial information transference based on large chiral asymmetry.

Sea urchin skeletons, or tests, comprise rigid calcareous plates, interlocked and sutured together with collagen fibres. The tests are malleable due to mutability in the collagen fibres that loosen during active feeding, yielding interplate gaps. We designed an extraterrestrial simulation experiment wherein we subjected actively growing sea urchins to one factor associated with zero-gravity environments, by growing them under conditions in which reactionary gravitational forces were balanced, and observed how their tests responded. Preventing tests from adhering to surfaces during active growth produced more-spherical bodies, realized as increased height-to-diameter ratios. Sea urchin tests constitute ideal systems for obtaining data that could be useful in extraterrestrial biology research, particularly in how skeletons grow under altered-gravity conditions.