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⁴⁰ Under article 11, the ICC only has jurisdiction over crimes committed after the entry into force of the Rome Statute, namely 1 July 2002. Thus, the crimes of the Khmer Rouge, for example, now being dealt with by the ECCC, are not covered by the ICC. The same is true of the Bangladesh war crimes tribunal, which is concerned with acts committed during the war of independence in 1971.

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⁶² HH Koh, ‘The Obama Administration and International Law’ (Annual Meeting of the American Society of International Law, Washington, DC, 2 March 2010) <http://www.state.gov/s/l/releases/remarks/139119.htm>. See also JB Bellinger ‘Legal Issues in the War on Terrorism’ (London School of Economics and Political Science, 31 October 2006) <http://www2.lse.ac.uk/PublicEvents/pdf/20061031_JohnBellinger.pdf>.

⁶³ ‘Attorney General Announces Forum Decisions for Guantanamo Detainees’ (Washington, DC, 13 November 2009) <http://www.justice.gov/ag/speeches/2009/ag-speech-091113.html>.

⁶⁴ Yoo, J, ‘The KSM Trial Will Be an Intelligence Bonanza for Al Qaeda’ Wall Street Journal (New York, 15 November 2009)Google Scholar <http://online.wsj.com/article/NA_WSJ_PUB:SB10001424052748704431804574537370665832850.html>.

⁶⁵ The domestic courts in the United Kingdom have faced similar difficulties in dealing with suspected terrorists but have taken a different stance. See RB (Algeria) v Secretary of State for the Home Department; OO (Jordan) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2009] 2 WLR 512 [210] (Lord Hope).

⁶⁶ See Mayer, J, ‘The Trial: Eric Holder and the Battle Over Khalid Sheikh Mohammed’ New Yorker (New York, 15 February 2010)Google Scholar <http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2010/02/15/100215fa_fact_mayer>. See also ‘Top Terror Prosecutor is a Critic of Civilian Trials’ New York Times (New York, 19 February 2010) <http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/20/nyregion/20prosecutor.html?pagewanted=1&_r=1&ref=khalid_shaikh_mohammed>.

⁶⁷ Letter from Senator Lindsey O Graham of South Carolina to The Honourable Eric H Holder Jr, Attorney General (14 July 2010) <http://lgraham.senate.gov/public/_files/_pdfs/Senator%20Lindsey%20Graham%20Letter%20to%20Attorney%20General%20Holder.pdf>.

⁶⁸ ‘Bloomberg Balks at 9/11 Trial, Dealing Blow to White House’ New York Times (New York, 27 January 2010) <http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/28/nyregion/28bloomberg.html>.

⁶⁹ ‘Attorney General Eric Holder Testifies Before the Senate Judiciary Committee’ (Washington, DC, 14 April 2010) <http://www.justice.gov/ag/speeches/2010/ag-speech-100414.html>.

⁷⁰ ‘Statement by the President on H.R. 6523’ (7 January 2011) <http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2011/01/07/statement-president-hr-6523>.

⁷¹ Executive Order 13567 ‘Periodic Review of Individuals Detained at Guantánamo Bay Naval Station Pursuant to the Authorization for Use of Military Force’ <http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2011-03-10/pdf/2011-5728.pdf>.

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⁷³ ‘Closure of Guantanamo Detention Facilities’ Executive Order of the President of the USA (22 January 2009) <http://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/ClosureOfGuantanamoDetentionFacilities/>.

⁷⁴ Reuters, ‘Special Report: How the White House Learned to Love the Drone’ (18 May 2010) <http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE64H5SL20100518>.

⁷⁵ New America Foundation, ‘The Year of the Drone’ <http://counterterrorism.newamerica.net/drones>.

⁷⁶ See P Alston, ‘Report of the Special Rapporteur on Extrajudicial, Summary or Arbitrary Executions: Study on Targeted Killings’ (28 May 2010) UN Human Rights Council A/HRC/14/24/Add6 <http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrcouncil/docs/14session/A.HRC.14.24.Add6.pdf>.

⁷⁷ ‘The relocation or displacement of history into legal settings has a distorting effect on the story’ (GJ Simpson, ‘War Crimes: A Critical Introduction’ in TLH McCormack and GJ Simpson (eds), The Law of War Crimes: National and International Approaches (Kluwer Law International 1997) 20). See also Osiel, M, Mass Atrocity, Collective Memory and the Law (Transaction Publishers 1997) 79Google Scholar.

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⁷⁹ Justice Jackson's Opening Statement for the Prosecution (21 November 1945) Trial of the Major War Criminals before the International Military Tribunal 100–01 <http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/nuremberg/jackson.html>.

⁸⁰ Koskenniemi (n 60) 25. See also Alvarez, JE, ‘Rush to Closure: Lessons of the Tadic Judgment’ (1998) 96 Michigan LRev 2031, 2056Google Scholar.

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⁹¹ For example, the fact-finding capabilities of international criminal courts have also been criticized. See Combs, NA, Fact-finding Without Facts: The Uncertain Evidentiary Foundations of International Criminal Convictions (CUP 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, reviewed by C Stephen (2011) 22 EJIL 602.

⁹² ‘The risk is that the formal rules of judicial proceedings and the orientation of trials towards finality will not do justice to the complexity of a historical interpretation that should remain open for revision’ ( Löytömäki, S, ‘Barbie, Touvier, Papon. Des proces pour la memoire’ Book Review (2004) 15 EJIL 610, 612CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹⁰⁰ Case Concerning the Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v Serbia and Montenegro) (Judgment) (26 February 2007) ICJ Rep 2007.

¹⁰¹ Habré has been labelled the ‘African Pinochet’ by Human Rights Watch <http://www.hrw.org/en/habre-case>.

¹⁰² Questions Relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v Senegal). Belgium instituted proceedings against Senegal on 19 February 2009.

¹⁰³ See, for example, Kadic v Karadzic 70 F 3d 232 (2nd Cir 1995); Ye v Jiang Zemin and Falun Gong Control Office 383 F 3d 620 (7th Cir 2004); Bowoto v Chevron Corporation No C99-02506SI, 2007 WL 800940 (ND Cal 14 March 2007).

¹⁰⁴ ‘The United Nations Charter … makes it clear that in this modern age a state's treatment of its own citizens is a matter of international concern’ (630 F 2d 876 (2nd Cir 1980) 881 (Circuit Judge Kaufman).

¹⁰⁵ 28 USC s 1350 (2005). See Menon, JA, ‘The Alien Tort Statute: Blackstone and Criminal/Tort Law Hybridities’ (2006) 4 Journal of International Criminal Justice 372CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹⁰⁷ See, for example, Zappala, S, ‘The Rights of Victims v the Rights of the Accused’ (2010) 8 Journal of International Criminal Justice 137CrossRefGoogle Scholar: ‘It is well known that until the adoption of the International Criminal Court (ICC) Statute in 1998 there was no room for victims in international criminal procedure other than as witnesses.’

¹⁰⁸ Mettraux, G, ‘Victims’ Participation in International Criminal Law’ (2010) 8 Journal of International Criminal Justice 75CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹¹² See Chinkin, CM, ‘Editorial Comments: Women's International Tribunal on Japanese Military Sexual Slavery’ (2001) 95 AJIL 335CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹¹⁴ See Reuters ‘U.S. Armenia Genocide vote looms, angering Turkey’ (4 March 2010) http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/03/04/us-turkey-usa-idUSTRE6233L320100304.

¹¹⁵ Reuters, ‘Obama calls 1915 Armenian Massacre an Atrocity’ (24 April 2010) <http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE63N1DX20100424>.

¹¹⁶ Akhavan (n 83) 7.

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¹¹⁸ RJ Alfaro (March 1950) in ‘Special Rapporteur, Report on the Question of International Criminal Jurisdiction’ (1950) Yearbook of the International Law Commission 1, 17.

¹¹⁹ E Sandstrom (March 1950) in ibid 23.

¹²⁰ See <http://www.un.org/icc/index.htm>.

¹²¹ International Criminal Court, ‘Vanuatu Becomes the 120th State to Join the Rome Statute System’ (5 December 2011) http://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/exeres/4BDEBBE7-841B-4469-BBB5-82ACC921A0FF.htm.

¹²² Hall, CK, ‘The First Proposal for a Permanent International Criminal Court’ (1998) 322 Intl Rev of the Red Cross 57CrossRefGoogle Scholar <http://www.icrc.org/web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/html/57JP4M>.

¹²³ Bassiouni, MC, ‘From Versailles to Rwanda in Seventy-five Years: The Need to Establish a Permanent International Criminal Court’ (1997) 10 Harvard Human Rights Journal 11Google Scholar.

¹²⁴ Available at <http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/versailles_menu.asp>.

¹²⁵ Cassese, Gaeta and Jones (n 19) 6. See also Schabas, WA, An Introduction to the International Criminal Court (3rd edn, CambridgeCUP 2007) 1–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹²⁷ Bassiouni, ‘From Versailles’ (n 123) 39.

¹²⁸ Simpson, ‘War Crimes’ (n 77) 30.

¹²⁹ See arts 8(2) and 9(2) of the Statutes of the ICTR and ICTY respectively. See also Prosecutor v Dusko Tadic (Appeals Chamber, Decision on the Defence Motion for Interlocutory Appeal on Jurisdiction) ICTY-94-1-T (2 October 1995) para 83 (separate opinion of Judge Sidhwa).

¹³⁰ See para 10 of the preamble and arts 1 and 17 of the Rome Statute. See also JT Holmes ‘Complementarity: National Courts versus the ICC’ in Cassese, Gaeta and Jones (n 19) 667.

¹³¹ Statement Made at the Ceremony for the Solemn Undertaking of the Chief Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (16 June 2003) <http://www.iccnow.org/documents/MorenoOcampo16June03.pdf>. See also L Arbour, ‘Will the ICC Have an Impact on Universal Jurisdiction?’ (2003) 1 Journal of International Criminal Justice 585.

¹³² <http://www.icc-cpi.int/Menus/ICC/Situations+and+Cases/>.

¹³³ Hoile, D, ‘The International Criminal Court: Africa Beware!’ Lusaka Times (Lusaka, 6 June 2010)Google Scholar <http://www.lusakatimes.com/?p=26699>.

¹³⁴ S-H Song, ‘The Future Development of International Criminal Justice: An Interdisciplinary Approach’ (Public lecture given at the London School of Economics, 5 March 2010) <http://www2.lse.ac.uk/newsAndMedia/videoAndAudio/channels/publicLecturesAndEvents/player.aspx?id=604>. See also F Bensouda, ‘Does the ICC target Africa: is the ICC Selectively Prosecuting Cases?’ (Public speech given at an international media conference held in Botswana, 6 July 2011) http://www.wayamo.com/courses/recent-botswana.php.

¹³⁵ See UNSC Res 1593 (31 March 2005) <http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N05/292/73/PDF/N0529273.pdf?OpenElement>.

¹³⁶ The authorization is available at <http://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/doc/doc854287.pdf>.

¹³⁷ See Art 15 of the Rome Statute.

¹³⁸ See <http://www.icc-cpi.int/Menus/ICC/Structure+of+the+Court/Office+of+the+Prosecutor/>.

¹³⁹ See, for example, Romano, CPR (ed), The Sword and the Scales: The United States and International Courts and Tribunals (CUP 2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹⁴¹ ‘U.S. Letter to UN Secretary General Kofi Annan’ CNN (6 May 2002) <http://archives.cnn.com/2002/US/05/06/court.letter.text/index.html>.

¹⁴² See Blumenthal, S, ‘The Enemy Within’ The Guardian (London, 10 March 2005)Google Scholar <http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2005/mar/10/usa.comment>.

¹⁴³ An example of such an agreement, between the United States and Afghanistan, is available at <http://www.ll.georgetown.edu/guides/documents/Afghanistan03-119.pdf>.

¹⁴⁴ See ‘Schoolyard Bully Diplomacy’ New York Times (New York, 16 October 2005) <http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B04E4D9143FF935A25753C1A9639C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=1>.

¹⁴⁵ UNSC Res 1422 (12 July 2002) <http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N02/477/61/PDF/N0247761.pdf?OpenElement>. See Stahn, C, ‘The Ambiguities of Security Council Resolution 1422 (2002)’ (2003) 14 EJIL 85CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹⁴⁸ JB Bellinger, ‘The United States and International Law’ (speech at The Hague, 6 June 2007) 9 <http://photos.state.gov/libraries/unesco/182433/pdfs/JBB_Speech_on_International_Law_6-5-07.pdf>.

¹⁴⁹ See, for example, Bingham, T, The Rule of Law (Allen Lane 2010) 120–29Google Scholar; Steyn, Lord, ‘The Legality of the Invasion of Iraq’ (2010) European Human Rights Law Review 1Google Scholar; Lord Alexander of Weedon QC, ‘Iraq: The Pax Americana and the Law’ (JUSTICE Tom Sargant memorial annual lecture, 2003) <http://www.justice.org.uk/data/files/resources/164/Iraq-the-pax-Americana-and-the-law.pdf>.

¹⁵⁰ See, for example, ‘A Guide to the Memos on Torture’ New York Times (New York, 2005) http://www.nytimes.com/ref/international/24MEMO-GUIDE.html?_r=1.

¹⁵¹ UNSC Res 1970 (26 February 2011) <http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N11/245/58/PDF/N1124558.pdf?OpenElement>.

¹⁵² ‘Where Can the Victims of Atrocities Find Justice?’ (Forum hosted by the Women of Ateneo, Makati, Philippines, remarks, 10 May 2011) <http://www.state.gov/s/wci/us_releases/remarks/165257.htm>.

¹⁵³ ‘Clinton: It is a “Great Regret” that the US is Not in International Criminal Court’ The Guardian (London, 6 August 2009) <http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/aug/06/us-international-criminal-court>.

¹⁵⁴ Bellinger, JB, ‘More Continuity than Change’ New York Times (New York, 14 February 2010)Google Scholar <http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/15/opinion/15iht-edbellinger.html>.

¹⁵⁵ Koh (n 62).

¹⁵⁶ ibid. See also ‘Cleveland Outlines Obama's Effect on International Law’ 12 February 2010, <http://www.law.virginia.edu/html/news/2010_spr/jbmoore_keynote.htm.

¹⁵⁷ See ‘Remarks of President Obama, Address to Joint Session of Congress, 24 February 2009’ <http://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/remarks-of-president-barack-obama-address-to-joint-session-of-congress/>. See also D Howell, ‘International Law and the United Nations: A New Era of Engagement’ in R Niblett (ed), America and a Changed World: A Question of Leadership (Chatham House Papers 2010).

¹⁵⁸ UN Secretary General Ban Ki-Moon, ‘An Age of Accountability’ (Address to the Review Conference of the International Criminal Court, 31 May 2010) <http://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/asp_docs/RC2010/Statements/ICC-RC-statements-BanKi-moon-ENG.pdf>.

¹⁵⁹ ibid 1.

¹⁶⁰ See ICC Resolution RC/Res 4 (10 June 2010) <http://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/asp_docs/Resolutions/RC-Res.4-ENG.pdf>.

¹⁶¹ See Statement of the Philippine Observer Delegation (1 June 2010) <http://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/asp_docs/RC2010/Statements/ICC-RC-gendeba-Philippines-ENG.pdf>.

¹⁶² ‘The Aggression Negotiations at the ICC Review Conference’ EJIL: Talk (8 June 2010) <http://www.ejiltalk.org/the-aggression-negotiations-at-the-icc-review-conference/>.

¹⁶³ See Sriram, CL, ‘ICC Hypocrisy Over War Crimes’ The Guardian (London, 22 June 2010)Google Scholar <http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2010/jun/22/icc-hypocrisy-article-124-war-crimes>.

¹⁶⁴ <http://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/asp_docs/Resolutions/RC-Res.5-ENG.pdf>.

¹⁶⁵ Memo from Jack Straw, British Foreign Secretary, to Michael Wood, Legal Adviser, ‘Iraq: Legal Basis for Use of Force’ (29 January 2003) <http://www.iraqinquiry.org.uk/media/43511/doc_2010_01_26_11_04_18_456.pdf>.

¹⁶⁶ ‘International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg), Judgment and Sentences, 1 October 1946’ (1947) 41 AJIL 172, 186.

¹⁶⁷ See, for example, ‘Attorney General's Advice on the Iraq War: Resolution 1441’ (2005) 54 ICLQ 767 [34]; Regina v Jones (Margaret) and others [2007] 1 AC 136 [12] (Lord Bingham), [44] (Lord Hoffmann), [99] (Lord Mance).

¹⁶⁸ Cassese, A (ed), The Oxford Companion to International Criminal Justice (OUP 2009) 236Google Scholar.

¹⁶⁹ See Weisbord, N, ‘Prosecuting Aggression’ (2008) 49 Harv IntlLJ 161, 219Google Scholar. See also Glennon, MJ, ‘The Blank-prose Crime of Aggression’ (2010) 35 Yale JIntlL 71Google Scholar.

¹⁷⁰ Justice Jackson's Opening Statement (n 79) 100.

¹⁷¹ See Memorandum for Alberto R Gonzales, Counsel to the President from Office of the Assistant Attorney General Jay S Bybee (1 August 2002) 46 <http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/nation/documents/dojinterrogationmemo20020801.pdf>.

¹⁷² Similarly, see Jochnick, C, and Normand, R, ‘The Legitimation of Violence: A Critical History of the Laws of War’ (1994) 35 Harv IntlLJ 49Google Scholar, 50 for a historical critique of the use of the laws of war to ‘legalise inhumane military methods and their consequences’.

¹⁷³ See Waldron, J, ‘Torture and Positive Law: Jurisprudence for the White House’ (2005) 105 Columbia LRev 1681, 1701Google Scholar: ‘There are some scales one really should not be on, and with respect to which one really does not have a legitimate interest in knowing precisely how far along the scale one is permitted to go.’

¹⁷⁴ Annex 1, art 8 bis (1) of ICC, RC/Res 6 ‘The Crime of Aggression’ (11 June 2010) <http://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/asp_docs/Resolutions/RC-Res.6-ENG.pdf>.

¹⁷⁵ Justic Jackson's Opening Statement (n 79) 105.

¹⁷⁶ See art 231 (the ‘War Guilt’ clause) of the Versailles Treaty <http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/versailles_menu.asp>.

¹⁷⁷ Simpson, G, Law, War and Crime: War Crimes Trials and the Reinvention of International Law (Polity 2007) 63Google Scholar.

¹⁷⁸ Taylor, AJP, The Origins of the Second World War (Hamish Hamilton Ltd 1962) 12Google Scholar.

¹⁷⁹ Braithwaite, J, ‘Challenging Just Deserts: Punishing White Collar Criminals’ (1982) 73 J of Criminal Law and Criminology 723, 755CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁸⁰ See Fest, JC, The Face of the Third Reich: Portraits of the Nazi Leadership (Weidenfeld and Nicolson 1970)Google Scholar.

¹⁸¹ See Cassese, A, ‘Reflections on International Criminal Justice’ (1998) 61 MLR 1, 3Google Scholar: ‘forgetting makes a mockery of the dead’.

¹⁸² Statement by Harold Hongju Koh, Legal Advisor, United States Department of State, Regarding Crime of Aggression at the Resumed Eighth Session of the Assembly of States Parties of the International Criminal Court (New York, 23 March 2010) <http://usun.state.gov/briefing/statements/2010/139000.htm>.

¹⁸³ See Schabas, WA, The International Criminal Court: A Commentary on the Rome Statute (OUP 2010) 114CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Case Concerning Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of Congo v Uganda) (Judgment of 19 December 2005) ICJ Reports 2005, para 3 (separate opinion of Judge Simma).

¹⁸⁴ See Annex 1, art 15 bis (9) of ICC, RC/Res 6 ‘The Crime of Aggression’: ‘A determination of an act of an aggression by an organ outside the Court shall be without prejudice to the Court's own findings under this Statute’ <http://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/asp_docs/Resolutions/RC-Res.6-ENG.pdf>.

¹⁸⁵ See Heller, KJ, ‘The Sadly Neutered Crime of Aggression’ Opinio Juris (13 June 2010)Google Scholar <http://opiniojuris.org/2010/06/13/the-sadly-neutered-crime-of-aggression/>.

¹⁸⁶ See, for example, Helfer, LR and Slaughter, A-M, ‘Why States Create International Tribunals: A Response to Professors Posner and Yoo’ (2005) 93 California LRev 899, 902Google Scholar.

¹⁸⁷ Hirschman, AO, Exit, Voice and Loyalty: Responses to Decline in Firms, Organizations and States (Harvard University Press 1970)Google Scholar.

¹⁸⁸ This action directly followed an adverse decision of the ICJ concerning the treatment of Mexican nationals on death row by the United States' authorities. See Avena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v United States) (Judgment of 31 March 2004) [2004] ICJ Reports 128.

¹⁸⁹ Annex 1, art 15 bis (2) of ICC, RC/Res 6.

¹⁹⁰ ibid art 15 bis (3). See also art 121(3) of the Rome Statute.

¹⁹¹ Annex 1, Art 15 bis (5) of ICC, RC/Res 6.

¹⁹² ibid art 15 bis (4).

¹⁹³ See ‘Waltz with Bashir’ The Guardian (London, 5 March 2009), <http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/mar/05/al-bashir-darfur-crimes-icc>.

¹⁹⁴ See Assembly/AU/Dec 245(XIII) Rev 1, Decision on the Meeting of African States Parties to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Assembly/AU/13(XIII) <http://www.africa-union.org/root/au/Conferences/2009/july/summit/decisions/ASSEMBLY%20AU%20DEC%20243%20-%20267%20(XIII)%20_E.PDF>.

¹⁹⁵ See ‘China Calls for ICC Case Against Sudan President Omar-al-Bashir to be Dropped’ Daily Telegraph (London, 5 March 2009) <http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/sudan/4940876/China-calls-for-ICC-case-against-Sudan-president-Omar-al-Bashir-to-be-dropped.html>.

¹⁹⁶ See ‘World Reaction: Bashir Warrant’ BBC News (4 March 2009) <http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7923797.stm>.

¹⁹⁷ ‘The ICC and Sudan: A Dilemma Over Darfur’ The Economist (London, 15 July 2008) <http://www.economist.com/node/11737170>. See also L Oette, ‘Peace and Justice, or Neither? The Repercussions of the al-Bashir Case for International Criminal Justice in Africa and Beyond’ (2010) 8 Journal of International Criminal Justice 345.

¹⁹⁸ ‘The Mask of Altruism Disguising a Colonial War’ The Guardian (London, 2 August 2004) <http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2004/aug/02/sudan.oil>. See also ‘China is “Fuelling War in Darfur”’ BBC News (13 July 2008) <http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/7503428.stm>.

¹⁹⁹ See ‘Darfur Warrant for Sudan's Bashir: ICC Adds Genocide’ BBC News (12 July 2010) <http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/10603559.stm>. See also L Moreno-Ocampo, ‘Now End This Darfur Denial’ The Guardian (London, 15 July 2010) <http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/libertycentral/2010/jul/15/world-cannot-ignore-darfur>.

²⁰⁰ ‘The choice between justice and peace is no longer an option. We must be ambitious enough to pursue both, and wise enough to recognize, respect and protect the independence of justice.’ Address by Mr Kofi Annan, Review Conference of the Assembly of States Parties to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Kampala, Uganda (31 May 2010) para 54 <http://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/asp_docs/RC2010/Statements/ICC-RC-statements-KofiAnnan-ENG.pdf>.

²⁰¹ ‘Perhaps the most contentious challenge you face is the balance between peace and justice. Yet frankly, I see it as a false choice’ (Ban Ki-Moon (n 158) 3).

²⁰² Rice, X, ‘Chad Refuses to Arrest Omar al-Bashir on Genocide Charges’ The Guardian (London, 22 July 2010)Google Scholar <http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/jul/22/chad-refuses-arrest-omar-al-bashir>.

²⁰³ Harrington, J, ‘An End to War Through a Court of Paw? Perhaps—and in Time’ EJIL: Talk (14 June 2010)Google Scholar <http://www.ejiltalk.org/an-end-to-war-through-a-court-of-law-perhaps-and-in-time/>.

²⁰⁴ Koh (n 62).

²⁰⁵ H Kissinger, ‘The Pitfalls of Universal Jurisdiction’ (2001) Foreign Affairs.

²⁰⁶ L Reydams, ‘The Rise and Fall of Universal Jurisdiction’ (2010) Leuven Centre for Global Governance Studies, Working Paper 37 <http://ghum.kuleuven.be/ggs/publications/working_papers/new_series/wp31-40/wp37.pdf>.

²⁰⁷ The Princeton Principles on Universal Jurisdiction (2001) <http://lapa.princeton.edu/hosteddocs/unive_jur.pdf>. Put another way, ‘It is the heinousness of the offence that instils a right in any or all states to take action on behalf of humanity’ (L Ariamatsu, ‘Universal Jurisdiction for International Crimes: Africa's Hope for Justice?’ (2010) Chatham House Briefing Paper, 7).

²⁰⁸ See Reydams, L, Universal Jurisdiction: International and Municipal Legal Perspectives (OUP 2003) 5Google Scholar. See also R O'Keefe, ‘Universal Jurisdiction: Clarifying the Basic Concept’ (2004) 2 Journal of International Criminal Justice 735, 745.

²⁰⁹ ‘Tzipi Livni arrest warrant prompts Israeli government travel ‘ban’’ The Guardian (London, 15 December 2009) http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/dec/15/tzipi-livni-arrest-warrant-israeli?INTCMP=SRCH.

²¹⁰ Available at <http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrcouncil/docs/12session/A-HRC-12-48.pdf>.

²¹¹ ibid paras 187, 1849–57.

²¹² ‘Israeli Opposition Leader Tzipi Livni “Cancels London Visit Over Prosecution Fears”’ Daily Telegraph (London, 14 December 2009) <http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/israel/6811578/Israeli-opposition-leader-Tzipi-Livni-cancels-London-visit-over-prosecution-fears.html>.

²¹³ Brown, G, ‘Britain Must Protect Foreign Leaders from Private Arrest Warrants’ Daily Telegraph (London, 3 March 2010)Google Scholar <http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/politics/gordon-brown/7361967/Britain-must-protect-foreign-leaders-from-arrest.html>.

²¹⁴ Hansard, HC Deb 4 March 2010 cols 117–120WS <http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200910/cmhansrd/cm100304/wmstext/100304m0001.htm>.

²¹⁵ ‘Government's Move to Curb Universal Jurisdiction Sends Wrong Message’ The Guardian (London, 27 July 2010) <http://www.guardian.co.uk/law/2010/jul/27/universal-jurisdiction-law>.

²¹⁶ See ‘Arrest Warrants—Universal Jurisdiction’ (17 March 2010) Ministry of Justice Note <http://www.justice.gov.uk/publications/docs/arrests-warrants.pdf>.

²¹⁷ See ‘Liberty's Response to the Government's Proposals on Arrest Warrants for Crimes Subject to Universal Jurisdiction’ (April 2010) <http://www.liberty-human-rights.org.uk/pdfs/policy10/liberty-s-response-to-proposals-on-arrest-warrants.pdf>.

²¹⁸ See JUSTICE Response to Ministry of Justice Consultation (March 2010) <http://www.justice.org.uk/data/files/resources/175/Arrest_Warrants__Universal_Jurisdiction_JUSTICE_Response_29mar10.pdf>.

²¹⁹ ‘Move to Change Law on “Political” Arrest Warrants Postponed Until After Election’ The Guardian (London, 4 March 2010) <http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2010/mar/04/gordon-brown-tzipi-livni-arrest-warrants-change-law>.

²²⁰ Ministry of Justice, ‘New Rules on Universal Jurisdiction’ (22 July 2010) <http://www.justice.gov.uk/news/newsrelease220710b.htm>. For criticism of the coalition government's proposal, see D Machover, ‘Arrest Warrant Plans Make a Mockery of Universal Jurisdiction’ The Guardian (London, 30 March 2011) <http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2011/mar/30/coalition-criminal-justice-universal-jurisdiction>.

²²¹ See JUSTICE press release, ‘Proposed Changes to Arrest Warrant Rules “A Free Pass to Suspected War Criminals”’ (22 July 2010) <http://www.justice.org.uk/data/files/resources/49/22jul10-Proposed-changes-to-arrest-warrant-rules-a-free-pass-to-suspected-war-criminals.pdf>.

²²² See CPS, ‘CPS Statement in Relation to Ms Livni's Visit’ (6 October 2011) <http://www.cps.gov.uk/news/press_statements/_cps_statement_in_relation_to_ms_livni_s_visit/>.

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²²⁵ The Government of the Republic of Serbia v Ejup Ganic [2010] EW Misc 11 (MC).

²²⁶ Regina v Bow Street Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate and Others, Ex parte Pinochet Ugarte (No 3) [2000] 1 AC 147 [190F] (Lord Browne-Wilkinson).

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²²⁸ International Bar Association Human Rights Institute, ‘Justice Goldstone Gives Award Acceptance Speech and Discusses the Development of Universal Jurisdiction’ (4 December 2009) <http://www.ibanet.org/Article/Detail.aspx?ArticleUid=AC0FCACE-3B7B-4E2E-AD7C-1FC0787AF090>.

²²⁹ Simpson, ‘War Crimes’ (n 177) 1.

²³⁰ Koskenniemi, M, From Apology to Utopia: The Structure of International Legal Argument (reissue, CUP 2005) 20Google Scholar.

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²³⁵ Duffett (n 117) 4.

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²³⁷ Plessy v Ferguson 163 US 537 (1896) 559.

²³⁸ Simpson, Great Powers (n 6) xi.

²³⁹ ibid, 294.

²⁴⁰ Gordon, J, Invisible War: The United States and the Iraq Sanctions (Harvard University Press 2010) 230Google Scholar.

²⁴¹ Simpson Great Powers (n 6) x.

²⁴² ibid.

²⁴³ ibid xiii.