¹ Ozyegin, G and Hondagneu-Sotelo, P, ‘Domestic Work, Migration and the New Gender Order in Contemporary Europe’, in Lutz, H (ed) Migration and Domestic Work: A European Perspective on a Global Theme (Ashgate 2008) 195Google Scholar.

² Anderson, B, Doing the Dirty Work? The Global Politics of Domestic Labour (Zed Books 2000)Google Scholar.

³ Ozyegin and Hondagneu-Sotelo (n 1) 199; Anderson, B, ‘A Very Private Business: Exploring the Demand for Migrant Domestic Workers’ (2007) 14(3) European Journal of Women's Studies 247CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴ See, for example, Chen, MA ‘Recognizing Domestic Workers, Regulating Domestic Work: Conceptual, Measurement, and Regulatory Challenges’ (2011) 23 Canadian Journal of Women and the Law 167CrossRefGoogle Scholar; UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, ‘Rights of Migrant Domestic Workers in Europe’ (2010) 7.

⁵ UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (n 4) 4.

⁶ UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (n 4) 6; Chen (n 4) 169–70.

⁷ Blackett, A, ‘Introduction: Regulating Decent Work for Domestic Workers’ (2011) 23 Canadian Journal of Women and the Law 1CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁸ See, for example, Anderson, B, ‘Migration, Immigration Controls and the Fashioning of Precarious Workers’ (2010) 24(2) Work, Employment & Society 300CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁹ ibid 303.

¹⁰ Williams, F, ‘Migration and Care: Themes, Concepts and Challenges’ (2010) 9(3) Social Policy and Society 385CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹¹ Tomei, M, ‘Decent Work for Domestic Workers: Reflections on Recent Approaches to Tackle Informality’ (2011) 23 Canadian Journal of Women and the Law 186CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 187. See also D'Souza, A, ‘Moving towards Decent Work for Domestic Workers: An Overview of the ILO's Work’ (2010) ILO Working Paper 2/2010, 19Google Scholar.

¹² See EU Fundamental Rights Agency (FRA) Report, ‘Migrants in an Irregular Situation Employed in Domestic Work: Fundamental Rights Challenges for the European Union and its Member States’ (2011). For regular migrants, this is the case where recourse to ‘public funds’ is prohibited by the terms of their visa. In the UK context, see generally Pobjoy, J and Spencer, S, ‘Equality for All? The Relationship between Immigration Status and the Allocation of Rights in the United Kingdom’ (2012) 2 European Human Rights Law Review 160Google Scholar.

¹³ Committee on the Protection of the Rights of all Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families, General Comment No 1 on Migrant Domestic Workers (UN Doc CMW/C/GC/1, 23 February 2011) (CMW General Comment) para 13.

¹⁴ Lutz, H, ‘Gender in the Migratory Process’ (2010) 36(10) Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 1647CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 1652.

¹⁵ Convention Concerning Decent Work for Domestic Workers, International Labour Organisation, adopted at the 100th session of the International Labour Conference, Geneva, 2011.

¹⁶ CMW General Comment (n 13).

¹⁷ Committee for the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, General Recommendation No 26 on Women Migrant Workers (UN Doc CEDAW/C/2009/WP.1/R, 5 December 2008) (CEDAW General Recommendation).

¹⁸ (2006) 43 EHRR 16.

¹⁹ Application No 67724/09, Judgment of 11 October 2012.

²⁰ Application No 4239/08, Judgment of 13 November 2012.

²¹ Blackett (n 7) 4.

²² Parrenas, RS, ‘Migrant Filipina Domestic Workers and the International Division of Reproductive Labor’ (2000) 14(4) Gender and Society 560CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²³ International Labour Conference, 99th Session, 2010, Decent Work for Domestic Workers (Report IV(1)) (ILO Report on Decent Work for Domestic Workers (Report IV(1))) 5.

²⁴ Smith, P, ‘The Pitfalls of Home: Protecting the Health and Safety of Paid Domestic Workers (2010) Canadian Journal of Women and the Law 309, 311Google Scholar. See also Smith, P, ‘Aging and Caring in the Home: Regulating Paid Domesticity in the Twenty-First Century’ (2007) 92 Iowa Law Review 1835Google Scholar.

²⁵ See generally Williams, F, ‘Converging Variations in Migrant Care Work in Europe’ in Brennan, D and Williams, F (eds) ‘Care Markets and Migration in a Globalising World’ (2012)Google Scholar 20(4) Journal of European Social Policy. See also Benería, L, ‘The Crisis of Care, International Migration and Public Policy’ (2008) 14(3) Feminist Economics 1CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁶ ILO Report on Decent Work for Domestic Workers (Report IV(1)) (n 23) 13.

²⁷ ibid 2.

²⁸ Art 6.

²⁹ Art 7

³⁰ Art 10.

³¹ Art 11.

³² Art 13.

³³ Art 14.

³⁴ In respect of health and safety regulations and social security, the Convention acknowledges the concerns of States in these areas by allowing them to apply these measures progressively, and in consultation with the relevant stakeholders.

³⁵ Art 16.

³⁶ ILO, ‘Effective Protection for Domestic Workers: A Guide to Designing Labour Laws’ (2012) 4.

³⁷ ibid.

³⁸ CMW General Comment (n 13) para 37.

³⁹ ibid para 37-4; CEDAW General Recommendation (n 17) para 26(b).

⁴⁰ Chen (n 4).

⁴¹ See ‘Report of the Committee on Domestic Workers’, International Labour Conference, Provisional Record, 100th session, Geneva, June 2011.

⁴² HL Deb Col WA242 (Baroness Wilcox) (12 October 2011). See also HC Deb cols 288–9 (Ed Davey MP) (29 June 2011).

⁴³ Prior to drafting the convention, the ILO circulated a questionnaire to members to which the Irish State did not respond. Similarly, during the drafting negotiations the Irish government did not make a significant contribution. In the Committee on Domestic Workers the only (recorded) interventions of the Irish government related to the requirement to provide MDWs with a contract of employment prior to entering the state of employment and how that would fit with EU/EEA rights relating to free movement of workers. ILO Provisional Record, 100th Session 15 June 2011, Report of the Committee on Domestic Workers.

⁴⁴ See Written Answers, 6 March 2011, Dáil Eireann Debate Vol. 758, No 1, Richard Bruton TD (in response to question from Mary Lou McDonald TD). See also Written Answers, Tuesday 22 May 2012, Dáil Eireann Debate Vol. 766, No 1, Richard Bruton TD (in response to question from Gerard Nash TD).

⁴⁵ See International Labour Conference, 99th session 2010, Report on Decent Work for Domestic Workers (Report IV(2)) and ILO Provisional Record, 100th Session 15 June 2011, Report of the Committee on Domestic Workers respectively.

⁴⁶ ILO Report IV(2) (n 45) para 92.

⁴⁷ ILO, ‘Italy Ratifies the Domestic Workers Convention’ (22 January 2013). In accordance with art 21, the Domestic Workers Convention will enter into force on 5 September 2013, 12 months after the date on which it was ratified by two ILO member States.

⁴⁸ International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families, GA res 45/158, annex, 45 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No 49A) 262, UN Doc A/45/49 (1990) entered into force on 1 July 2003.

⁴⁹ This reflects the general diversity of the regulation of domestic work. See JM Ramirez-Machado, ‘Domestic Work, Conditions of Work and Employment: A Legal Perspective’ (Conditions of Work and Employment Series No 7, ILO 2003) (ILO Conditions of Work Report) 7.

⁵⁰ Issues relating to the regulation of the industry arising from ‘services a la personne’ are dealt with in a number of articles: see Labour Code, Partie Législative Nouvelle, Septieme Partie, Livre II, Titre III ‘Services à la Personne’ (arts 7231, 7232, L7233 and L7234 (ANSP), art R7232-19. See also arts L1271-1 to L1271-17 (‘Chèque emploi-service universel’).

⁵¹ Art L2261-15 provides that collective agreements can be extended. Arts L2261-15 to L2261-31 set out the conditions and procedures by which collective agreements can be so extended. See generally, Freedland, M, ‘Employment Law’, in Bell, J, Boyron, S and Whittaker, S, Principles of French Law (2nd edn, OUP 2007) 494Google Scholar. See also ILO Conditions of Work Report (n 49) 27. However note Freedland's comment that despite the fact that the conceptual approach to collective agreements remains intact, there is a great multiplicity of techniques of argument about the precise effect and duration of collective agreements (at 495).

⁵² Convention collective nationale des salariés du particulier employeur du 24 novembre 1999. In respect of other collective agreements for domestic workers, see Convention collective nationale des salariés du particulier employeur du 24 novembre 1999. Etendue par arrêté du 2 mars 2000 (JO du 11 mars 2000); Convention collective nationale des assistants maternels du particulier employeur du 1er juillet 2004. Etendue par arrêté du 17 décembre 2004 JORF 28 décembre 2004. Convention collective nationale de travail concernant les jardiniers et jardiniers-gardiens de propriétés privées du 30 janvier 1986. Etendue par arrêté du 27 mai 1986 JORF 8 juin 1986; Convention collective nationale de la branche de l'aide, de l'accompagnement, des soins et des services à domicile du 21 mai 2010/ Arrêté du 23 décembre 2011 portant extension de la convention collective nationale de la branche de l'aide, de l'accompagnement, des soins et des services à domicile et d'avenants à ladite convention collective (n° 2941).

⁵³ Arrêté du 2 mars 2000 (JO du 11 mars 2000).

⁵⁴ Art 1(a).

⁵⁵ Art 5.

⁵⁶ Art 6 and art 20(a)(5).

⁵⁷ Art 21.

⁵⁸ Art 7.

⁵⁹ Model permanent contract, Annex 1 to the Collective Agreement of 1999, para 7.

⁶⁰ ILO Report on Decent Work for Domestic Workers (Report IV(1)) (n 23) para 171.

⁶¹ Contained in art 25, together with the agreement contained at Annex V.

⁶² See F-X Devetter, F Jany-Catrice and T Ribault, Services à la personne (La Découverte 2009) in particular the chapter entitled ‘Des métiers sans profession’, 99.

⁶³ See ILO Conditions of Work Report (n 49) 27.

⁶⁴ See ‘Plan de dévelopement des services à la personne’ (16 February 2005) <http://travail-emploi.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/20050216_dp_presentation-plan.pdf>; ‘Plan 2 de développement des services à la personne: Créer, Professionaliser, Simplifier’ (ANSP, March 2009) <http://www.servicesalapersonne.gouv.fr/Public/P/ANSP/Actus/2009/mars/20090324_Plan2.pdf>.

⁶⁵ For a look at some of the innovations, see Kerbourc'h, J-Y, ‘L'étonnant dynamisme de l'emploi à domicile’ (2005) 2 Travail et Protection sociale, Alerte 29Google Scholar; Borgetto, M, ‘Les services à la personne’ (2006) Revue de droit sanitaire et social 3Google Scholar; Laforge, G, ‘La structuration de l'offre de services à la personne après la loi du 26 juillet 2005’ (2006) Revue de droit sanitaire et social 5Google Scholar.

⁶⁶ See PY Verkindt, ‘Le cheque emploi service universel’ Revue de droit sanitaire et social (2006).

⁶⁷ ANSP and Finances Publique, ‘Déclaration des revenus 2010’. For a full analysis of the mechanism and implications of the CESU, see Verkindt, ‘Le cheque-emploi service universel’ (n 66). See also Windebank, J, ‘The Chèque Emploi-Service, the Titre Emploi-Service and the Chèque Emploi-Service Universel in France: The Commodification of Domestic Work as a Route to Gender Equality?’ (2006) 14(2) Contemporary France 189CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Tomei (n 11).

⁶⁸ Windebank (n 67).

⁶⁹ Blackett (n 7) 11.

⁷⁰ Windebank (n 67) 194.

⁷¹ EU Fundamental Rights Agency (n 12) 19. Although as the report points out, the levels are difficult to quantify due to lack of data.

⁷² See also Devetter, FX and Rousseau, S, ‘The Impact of Industrialization on Paid Domestic Work: The Case of France’ (2009) 15 European Journal of Industrial Relations 297, 311CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷³ See Calleman, C, ‘Domestic Services in a "Land of Equality": The Case of Sweden’ (2011) 23 Canadian Journal of Women and the Law 121CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷⁴ See van Walsum, S, ‘Regulating Migrant Domestic Work in the Netherlands: Opportunities and Pitfalls’ (2011) 23 Canadian Journal of Women and the Law 141CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷⁵ See Léon, M, ‘Migration and Care Work in Spain: The Domestic Sector Revisited’ (2010) 9(3) Social Policy and Society 409CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also ‘Spain Approves New Regulations for Domestic Employees’ (ILO, Developments in Law and Practice 2012).

⁷⁶ See generally Albin, E and Mantouvalou, V, ‘The ILO Convention on Domestic Workers: From the Shadows to the Light’ (2012) 41 Industrial Law Journal 67CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷⁷ See Hardy, S, Labour Law and Industrial Relations in Great Britain (3rd edn, Kluwer Law International 2007)Google Scholar; also Albin and Mantouvalou ibid.

⁷⁸ See section 51 of the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 and Regulation 19, Working Time Regulations 1998 (No 1833 of 1998) (which provides that Regulations 4(1) and (2), 6(1), (2) and (7), 7(1), (2) and (6) and (8) do not apply in relation to a worker employed as a domestic servant in a private household), respectively.

⁷⁹ Regulations 36 and 37 of the Minimum Wage Regulations 1999.

⁸⁰ ILO Report IV(1) (n 23) 7.

⁸¹ Appeal No UKEAT/0553/10/DM, Judgment of 8 December 2011 (EAT judgment). See also M Lalani, ‘Ending the Abuse: Policies that Work to Protect Migrant Workers’ (Kalayaan May 2011) 22.

⁸² EAT judgment, para 58.

⁸³ ibid, para 46.

⁸⁴ ibid, para 46.

⁸⁵ ibid, para 58.

⁸⁶ ibid, para 58.

⁸⁷ Minister for Jobs, Enterprise and Innovation Richard Bruton has confirmed that: ‘domestic workers are protected by virtue of the fact that the full suite of employment rights legislation, including that of redress for violations of their employment rights, apply to domestic workers in the same way as they apply to other categories of employees in Ireland’. Written Answers, Dáil Éireann Debate Vol. 759 No 1 (13 March 2012) in response to a question from Gerald Nash TD.

⁸⁸ Although the National Minimum Wage Act 2000 makes provision for deductions from the workers’ wages for board and lodging: Section 20 of the Minimum Wage Act 2000.

⁸⁹ The Code of Practice was developed on foot of a social partnership agreement (see footnote infra) and the pilot inspection scheme was developed as a result of pressure from Migrant Rights Centre of Ireland (see below).

⁹⁰ It was agreed in section 23.2 of Part 2 of ‘Towards 2016 – Ten Year Framework Social Partnership Agreement 2006–2015’ that the Labour Relations Commission should be asked to develop a code of practice to set out the current employment rights and protections for persons employed in other people's homes pursuant to its functions under section 42 of the Industrial Relations Act 1990. The Industrial Relations Act 1990 (Code of Practice for Protecting Persons Employed in Other Person's Homes) (Declaration) Order 1990 declared that the code of practice set out in the Schedule shall be a code of practice for the purposes of the Industrial Relations Act 1990.

⁹¹ Section 5.11.

⁹² For example, passport, visa, identity cards, bank account documentation. Section 5.8.

⁹³ Section 5.2.2.

⁹⁴ Section 5.10. See also section 5.2.1.

⁹⁵ ILO (n 36) 48.

⁹⁶ Although note that the Code does have some evidential value: section 42(4) of the Industrial Relations Act 1990 provides that ‘In any proceedings before a court, the Labour Court, the Commission, the Employment Appeals Tribunal, the Director of Equality Investigations or an equality officer, a code of practice shall be admissible in evidence and any provision of the code which appears to the court, body or officer concerned to be relevant to any question arising in the proceedings shall be taken into account in determining that question.’ Section 43 provides that the Labour Court can give its opinion on the interpretation on a code of practice, investigate a complaint that there has been a breach of the code of practice and make a recommendation setting out its view on the matter.

⁹⁷ ILO Report (IV)(1) (n 23) 72.

⁹⁸ See ‘MRCI Welcomes NERA Campaign to Protect Rights of Domestic Workers – 2010’ (Press Release, 16 November 2010). See also MRCI, ‘Private Homes: A Public Concern – The Experiences of Twenty Migrant Women Employed in the Private Home in Ireland’ (Recommendation at para 3.4: ‘develop a special section in the Labour Inspectorate to investigate this area of work’). See also the statistics contained in MRCI Domestic Workers Action Group Survey, 2010 and Press Release, 1 May 2012. The domestic work sector holds the second largest percentage of complaints made to MRCI.

⁹⁹ NERA's website lists the standard records to which an inspector will require access to during the course of an inspection. List available at <http://www.employmentrights.ie/en/informationforemployers/recordstobemadeavailableforinspections/>.

¹⁰⁰ Some householders did show the inspector the accommodation provided to the domestic worker, which in his view was satisfactory, however his official remit did not include inspecting the accommodation provided.

¹⁰¹ S Mullally and C Kenny, ‘The ILO Convention and Recommendation on Decent Work for Domestic Workers’ UCC Centre for Criminal Justice and Human Rights Working Paper (April 2012); M Galotti, ‘The Gender Dimension of Domestic Work in Western Europe’, No 96 International Migration Papers (International Labour Office, Geneva, 2009) 61. See also ILO Conditions of Work Report (n 49).

¹⁰² See NERA Briefing of January 2011 and also updated undated briefing (copies on file with the author).

¹⁰³ As pointed out by NERA in its updated briefing.

¹⁰⁴ Semi-structured interview with NERA officials, 19 April 2012, carried out by the author (semi-structured interview). Updated briefing. The ‘inspections revealed the need for clarity regarding the work an employee is required to perform and when they are required to perform it’.

¹⁰⁵ MRCI Press Release, 30 April 2012: ‘In recent years MRCI has uncovered over forty cases of forced labour and domestic servitude. We have also seen a marked increase in the exploitation of domestic workers employed by embassies and diplomatic staff in Ireland.’

¹⁰⁶ Semi-structured interview.

¹⁰⁷ The method of calculating the employee's average hourly rate of pay is set out in section 20 of the National Minimum Wage Act 2000.

¹⁰⁸ EUFRA report (n 12) 38: ‘Labour inspectors usually play a secondary role, as their power to carry out inspections in private homes is limited. They can generally intervene only after employees report infractions. Court orders or similar permissions are usually required to conduct checks inside private households.’ See also Galotti (n 101) 23. See also Smith, ‘Aging and Caring in the Home: Regulating Paid Domesticity in the Twenty-First Century’ (n 24), in relation to health and safety inspections. See also the EU position that the private home is not a normal workplace: Committee on Domestic Workers 2011, para 631.

¹⁰⁹ See Procedure 3.5, NERA Case Management Manual (1 May 2011). This is noted by NERA in its January 2011 briefing. The enabling legislation generally states: ‘An inspector shall not, except with the consent of the occupier, enter a private dwelling (other than a part of the dwelling used as a place of work) unless he or she has obtained a warrant from the District Court under subsection (X) authorising the entry.’ See section 33 of the National Minimum Wage Act 2000, for example.

¹¹⁰ See ILO Report (IV)(1) (n 23).

¹¹¹ See generally, Albin and Mantouvalou (n 76) 67; see also Mullally and Kenny (n 101) 16 ff.

¹¹² ILO Report (IV)(1) (n 23) 3.

¹¹³ Mundlak, G and Shamir, H, ‘Between Intimacy and Alienage: The Legal Construction of Domestic and Carework in the Welfare State’ in Lutz, H (ed) Migration and Domestic Work: A European Perspective on a Global Theme (Ashgate 2008) 161Google Scholar, 166.

¹¹⁴ ILO Report (IV)(1) (n 23) 3.

¹¹⁵ ibid 13.

¹¹⁶ Galotti (n 101) 28.

¹¹⁷ Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly Committee on Migration, Refugees and Population, Report on ‘Protecting Migrant Women in the Labour Market’ (Doc 12549, 24 March 2011).

¹¹⁸ EU Fundamental Rights Agency (n 12) Chap 1, ‘The Gap between Demand and Supply’.

¹¹⁹ CMW General Comment (n 13) para 21.

¹²⁰ ibid.

¹²¹ Concluding Observations of the UN Human Rights Committee in Respect of Kuwait, 17 October 2011, para 18. See also Human Rights Watch, ‘Walls at Every Turn: Abuse of Migrant Domestic Workers through Kuwait's Sponsorship System’ (HRW 2010).

¹²² CMW General Comment (n 13) paras 51–53.

¹²³ CMW General Comment (n 13) paras 54–55.

¹²⁴ CMW General Comment (n 13) para 42.

¹²⁵ CMW General Comment (n 13) para 50.

¹²⁶ ibid.

¹²⁷ CEDAW General Recommendation (n 17) para 11.

¹²⁸ Protecting Migrant Women in the Labour Market. Report of the Committee on Migration, Refugees and Population. Ms Pernille Frahm. Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe http://assembly.coe.int/Documents/WorkingDocs/Doc11/EDOC12549.pdf).

¹²⁹ MRCI, ‘Private Homes, A Public Concern: The Experience of Twenty Migrant Women Employed in the Private Home in Ireland’, 21.

¹³⁰ ibid 21.

¹³¹ Ibid Appendix A.

¹³² Arrêté du 18 janvier 2008 relatif à la délivrance, sans opposition de la situation de l'emploi, des authorisations de travail aux ressortissants de Etats de l'Union européene soumis a des dispostions transitoires.

¹³³ ‘Employé de ménage à domicile’.

¹³⁴ ‘Intervenant à domicile’.

¹³⁵ ‘Intervenant aupres des enfants’.

¹³⁶ ‘Aide-soignant’.

¹³⁷ Arrêté du 18 janvier 2008 relatif à la délivrance, sans opposition de la situation de l'emploi, des authorisations de travail aux étrangers non ressortissants d'un Etat membre de l'Union européenne, d'un autre Etat partie à l'Espace économique européen ou de la Confédération Suisse.

¹³⁸ EUFRA (n 12).

¹³⁹ Art L1262-1-3 of the Labour Code and Circular NOR IMIM0900078C of 3 August 2009. The Circular introduces a simplified procedure for applying for the work permit, involving the filing of a form with the relevant authorities.

¹⁴⁰ Art L1262-1-4 of the Labour Code.

¹⁴¹ Circular NOR IMIM0900078C of 3 August 2009, referring to the provisions of Article R312-4 of the Social Security Code.

¹⁴² Circular NOR IMIM0900078C of 3 August 2009.

¹⁴³ Lalani (n 81).

¹⁴⁴ UK Border Agency, ‘Employment-Related Settlement, Tier-5 and Overseas Domestic Workers: A Consultation’ (June 2011) (Consultation Paper).

¹⁴⁵ See generally Anderson, B, ‘Mobilizing Migrants, Making Citizens: Migrant Domestic Workers as Political Agents’ (2010) 33(1) Ethnic and Racial Studies 60CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁴⁶ The Immigration Rules 1994 HC 395 (as amended) (Immigration Rules).

¹⁴⁷ Formerly para 159B of the Immigration Rules.

¹⁴⁸ Formerly para 159E of the Immigration Rules.

¹⁴⁹ This was not set out in the Immigration Rules but was accepted practice.

¹⁵⁰ As they could qualify for ‘indefinite leave to remain’ if they met the criteria laid down in Immigration Rule 159G.

¹⁵¹ Formerly para 159A of the Immigration Rules.

¹⁵² See Lalani (n 81).

¹⁵³ Lalani (n 81) 18–21.

¹⁵⁴ House of Commons, Home Affairs Select Committee, Sixth Report of Session 2008–2009, The Trade in Human Beings: Human Trafficking in the UK, HC 23-I, 14 May 2009, paras 118–119.

¹⁵⁵ UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the human rights of migrants, Addendum: Mission to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, 16 March 2010, A/HRC/14/30/Add.3, p. 15 and 16, and recommendation at para 76.

¹⁵⁶ Application No 25965/04, Judgment of 7 January 2010.

¹⁵⁷ Home Office Announcement, ‘Immigration (Employment-related settlement, Overseas Domestic Workers, Tier 5 of the Points Based System and Visitors)’, 29 February 2012.

¹⁵⁸ Paras 159A(iv) and 159B of the Immigration Rules.

¹⁵⁹ Paras 159A(vi), 159G(i) and 159E of the Immigration Rules.

¹⁶⁰ Kalayaan, ‘Response to “Employment-Related Settlement, Tier-5 and Overseas Domestic Workers: A Consultation”’ (5 August 2011).

¹⁶¹ EUFRA Report (n 12) 39.

¹⁶² Home Office Announcement, ‘Immigration (Employment-related settlement, Overseas Domestic Workers, Tier 5 of the Points Based System and Visitors)’, 29 February 2012, 2; Lord Reay, House of Lords 28 November 1990 c1052.

¹⁶³ Consultation Paper, 29. See also National Institute of Social and Economic Research (commissioned by the Migration Advisory Committee, ‘Skilled Immigration and Strategically Important Skills in the UK economy’ (17 January 2012 <http://www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/sitecontent/documents/aboutus/workingwithus/mac/research-skill/niesr-skilled.pdf?view=Binary>).

¹⁶⁴ Consultation Paper, 29.

¹⁶⁵ In relation to the ILO Convention, see eg HL Deb Col WA242 (Baroness Wilcox) (12 October 2011); HC Deb cols 288–289 (Ed Davey MP) (29 June 2011). In relation to the ODW visa, see eg Consultation Paper, ibid; Home Office Announcement (n 162).

¹⁶⁶ ‘Rights of Migrant Domestic Workers in Europe’ (UN Human Rights, Office of the High Commissioner Europe Regional Office 2010) at 10.

¹⁶⁷ Lutz, H, ‘When Home Becomes a Workplace: Domestic Work as an Ordinary Job in Germany?’ in Lutz, H (ed) Migration and Domestic Work: A European Perspective on a Global Theme (Ashgate 2008) 43, 49Google Scholar.

¹⁶⁸ Galotti (n 101).

¹⁶⁹ ibid. See also Danish Centre against Human Trafficking, ‘Au pair and trafficked? – Recruitment, residence in Denmark and dreams for the future, A qualitative study of the prevalence and risk of human trafficking in the situations and experiences of a group of au pairs in Denmark’ (2010); Office of the Special Representative and Co-ordinator for Combating Trafficking in Human Beings, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, ‘Unprotected Work, Invisible Exploitation: Trafficking for the Purpose of Domestic Servitude’, (OSCE 2010). See also Kartusch, A, ‘Domestic Workers in Diplomats’ Households: Rights Violations and Access to Justice in the Context of Diplomatic Immunity’ (German Human Rights Institute 2011)Google Scholar.

¹⁷⁰ van Hooren, F, ‘When Families Need Immigrants: The Exceptional Position of Migrant Domestic Workers and Care Assistants in Italian Immigration Policy’ 2(2) Bulletin of Italian Politics (2010)Google Scholar <http://gla.ac.uk/media/media_194307_en.pdf> 21–38.

¹⁷¹ See generally León (n 75); Scrinzi, F, ‘Migrations and the Restructuring of the Welfare State in Italy: Change and Continuity in the Domestic Work Sector’ in Lutz, H (ed) Migration and Domestic Work: A European Perspective on a Global Theme (Ashgate 2008) 29Google Scholar.

¹⁷² EU Fundamental Rights Agency (n 12); CMW General Comment (n 13) para 21.

¹⁷³ See CMW General Comment (n 13) para 21: ‘Overly restrictive immigration laws may lead to higher numbers of migration domestic workers who are undocumented or in an irregular situation, and thus particularly vulnerable to human rights violations’.

¹⁷⁴ (2006) 43 EHRR 16.

¹⁷⁵ ibid paras 143–145.

¹⁷⁶ Application No 67724/09, Judgment of 11 October 2012.

¹⁷⁷ Application No 4239/08, Judgment of 13 November 2012.

¹⁷⁸ C.N. v UK, Application No 4239/08, Judgment of 13 November 2012, para 71.

¹⁷⁹ C.N. and V v France, Application No 67724/09, Judgment of 11 October 2012, para 71.

¹⁸⁰ ibid para 77.

¹⁸¹ C.N. v UK, Application No 4239/08, Judgment of 13 November 2012, para 75.

¹⁸² Application No 25965/04, Judgment of 7 January 2010.

¹⁸³ S Mullally and C Murphy, ‘Decent Work for Domestic Workers: Recognising the Migration Nexus’ (paper presented at Seminar on Gender, Migration and Human Rights, EUI Florence, 18–20 June 2012) (copy on file with the author).

¹⁸⁴ HC Deb col 101WH (10 May 2006).

¹⁸⁵ See UK Border Agency, ‘Employment-Related Settlement, Tier-5 and Overseas Domestic Workers: A Consultation’ (June 2011) 30.

¹⁸⁶ Article 34, Loi no 2003-239 du 18 mars 2003 pour la sécurité intérieure (NOR: INTX0200145L).

¹⁸⁷ While the Court ‘noted’ that the legislation had been amended, it did not opine on whether the amended legislation provided practical and effective protection against the actions of which the applicant was a victim, as it was not in force at the time and therefore did not apply (para 148). The amendments were quite minimal and the relevant provisions still ‘do not deal specifically with the rights guaranteed under Article 4 of the Convention, but concern, in a much more restrictive way, exploitation through labour and subjection to working and living conditions that are incompatible with human dignity’ (para 142) meaning that French law is probably still in breach of art 4.

¹⁸⁸ Mantouvalou, V, ‘Modern Slavery: The UK Response’ (2010) 39 Industrial Law Journal 425CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁸⁹ See Murphy, C, ‘State Needs to Work on Slavery’ (Irish Times, 5 January 2013)Google Scholar.

¹⁹⁰ Section 1 of the Criminal Law (Human Trafficking) (Amendment) Bill 2013 proposes to amend the definition of “labour exploitation” contained in the Criminal Law (Human Trafficking) Act 2008 to encompass the ILO definition of forced labour.

¹⁹¹ Albin and Mantouvalou (n 76) 67. See also Mantouvalou (n 188) and Mantouvalou, V, ‘Servitude and Forced Labour in the 21st Century: The Human Rights of Domestic Workers’ (2006) 35 Industrial Law Journal 395CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁹² Albin and Mantouvalou (n 76) 67. See also Mantouvalou (n 188) and Mantouvalou (n 191) 395.

¹⁹³ Lutz, H and Palenga-Mollenbeck, E, ‘Care, Gender and Migration: Towards a Theory of Transnational Domestic Work Migration in Europe’ (2011) 19(3) Contemporary European Studies 349CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁹⁴ Blackett (n 7) 6.

¹⁹⁵ ibid 6. See also D'Souza (n 11).

¹⁹⁶ UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (n 5) 19.

¹⁹⁷ Airey v Ireland [1979] 2 EHRR 305, para 24.