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Primary Education and the Fight against Alcoholism in Belgium at the Turn of the Century

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 February 2017

Maurice De Vroede
Maurice De Vroede*
Affiliation:
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven
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Extract

In Belgian educational circles toward the end of the nineteenth century, there was a tendency to adapt primary education to the new social conditions. The objective was expressed in the slogan: “The school for and by life.” “By life” meant that the education must not be alien to the surrounding reality but must allow itself to be inspired by it. Between the world wars, under the influence of Ovide Decroly, this was finally concretized in the study of the environment by means of active observation. “The school for life” meant that the primary school must meet the new needs. Economically, a better educated work force was needed for industry; socially, the workers' movements were making their influence felt. During the nineteenth century, the ideological opposition between the Catholics and the liberals dominated education, the former wishing to maintain the religious character of the society, the latter striving for secularization. Both the liberal and the Catholic bourgeoisie were confronted with the social question and, after the 1880s, with the organized socialist movement. The leading classes perceived socialism as a danger for the social order, fearing that it would threaten religion, undermine the family, and generate a spirit of rebellion. Clamorous strikes made that danger all too obvious. Greater attention to social problems was thus demanded, and this led to the beginnings of social legislation, among other things.

Type
Articles
Information
History of Education Quarterly , Volume 25 , Issue 4 , Winter 1985 , pp. 483 - 497
Copyright
Copyright © 1986 by History of Education Society 

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References

Notes

1. Cauderlier, Emile, L'Alcoolisme en Belgique. Le mal - Les causes - Le remède (Brussels, 1893), 30.Google Scholar

2. Belgium, Central Commission for Statistics, Statistique générale de la Belgique. Exposé de la situation du Royaume de 1876 à 1900, vol. 1 (Brussels, 1907), 313–14.Google Scholar

3. Ibid. Google Scholar

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5. Belgium, Central Commission for Statistics, Statistique générale de la Belgique. Exposé de la situation du Royaume de 1876 à 1900, vol. 1, 313.Google Scholar

6. In 1900, the official count was 128,911 saloons. In addition, the number of places where strong drink was surreptitiously sold was estimated at 42,838. The numbers of adults (men and women) was 3,926,533 on 31 December 1900.Google Scholar

7. Cf. De Morgenster 11 (May 1903): 34.Google Scholar

8. Cauderlier, , L'Alcoolisme en Belgique, 28.Google Scholar

9. Belgium, Ministry of Arts and Sciences, Rapport triennal sur la situation de l'instruction primaire en Belgique. Vingt-troisième période triennale 1909–1910–1911 (Brussels, 1913), 358–59.Google Scholar

10. Cauderlier, , L'Alcoolisme en Belgique, 28.Google Scholar

11. What follows rests on the analysis of the position of the anti-alcohol partisans that was conducted by two of my students, whose unpublished license memoirs I have used for the present publication: Fons Exelmans, “De lagere school en de strijd tegen het alkoholisme 1880–1914” (manuscript, History of Education Department, University of Leuven, 1980); Chrispeels, Yvette, “De strijd tegen het drankmisbruik in België, eind 19de-begin 20ste eeuw” (manuscript, same department, 1982).Google Scholar

12. See, for example, Melchior, Juliaan, Handboek over het alcoolisme voor lager en middelbaar onderwijs, 2d ed. (Hasselt, 1900), 114, 251–52.Google Scholar

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16. The number of total abstainers, however, seems to have been small: Rowntree, Benjamin Seebohm, Land & Labour. Lessons from Belgium (London, 1910), 417.Google Scholar

17. Thus, one of the objectives of the Patriotic League against Alcoholism was to study and to ask the public authorities to take measures against alcoholism: L'Alcoolisme en Belgique. Compterendu des assemblées générales tenues à Bruxelles le 15 déc. 1901, le 27 avril et le 15 juin 1902 (Brussels, 1902). One of the techniques of the Belgian Catholic Anti-Alcohol League (Katholieke Onthoudersbond van België) was “sending of petitions to the authorities, and particularly the legislative Chambers, for new ordinances against alcoholism and to request more stringent enforcement of the existing laws”: De Sint-Jansbode 3 (1 Nov. 1894): 194.Google Scholar

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20. De Opvoeding 20 (8 Nov. 1894).Google Scholar

21. The founders were Doctors L[ouis?] Martin, Hippolyte Barella, and Théodore Belval. Between 1884 and 1913, the Ligue published numerous reports on its activities under the title L'alcoolisme en Belgique. Beginning in 1884, it published its own journal: Journal de la Ligue patriotique contre l'alcoolisme .Google Scholar

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23. For example, the “Federatie der katholieke matigheidsgenootschappen van de provincie Antwerpen” in Antwerp, the “Onthoudeersbond” in West-Flanders, , “Le Bien-Etre social” in Liège, and “De Vijand” in East-Flanders. Regarding these leagues and many others, see Chrispeels, , “De strijd tegen het drankmisbruik,” 65–99.Google Scholar

24. Alongside the Patriotic League against Alcoholism the Belgian Division of the international organization “La Croix-Bleue” and its sister association “L'Etoile Bleue.” Google Scholar

25. The “Ligue nationale socialiste antialcoolique,” founded in 1898 by Emile Vandervelde, and the lodge “Egalité,” dating from 1908 and belonging to the “International Order of Good Templars.” Google Scholar

26. The “Union des femmes belges contre l'alcoolisme” (1899), the “Alliance des femmes belges contre l'abus de l'alcool” (1905) and the Catholic Marian organizations dating from 1912–14.Google Scholar

27. Journal de la Ligue patriotique contre l'alcoolisme (Since 1884); Het Volksgeluk (since 1889); Le Bien social (since 1892); De Sint-Jansbode (since 1892); Onthoudersblad van West-Vlaanderen (since 1893); Le Journal des mères (since 1901); La Clairière. Organe de l'Union des femmes belges contre l'alcoolisme (since 1903); De Vijand (since 1904); Onthouding (since 1907); and others.Google Scholar

28. The basic conceptions on the task of women were expressed by Parent, Marie, Le role de la femme dans la lutte contre l'alcoolisme (Brussels, 1892). See also Merzbach, Henry, De Vaderlandsche Bond tegen alcoolism (Brussels, 1899), 26–27; Defoort, H[endrik], Huiselijke opvoeding, of rol der moeder in den strijd tegen 't alcoolism (Bruges, 1905).Google Scholar

29. Cf. Vroede, Maurice De, “Volksonderwijs en maatschappij in België en Nederland van de zeventiende tot het begin van de twintigste eeuw,” Bijd ragen en Mededelingen betreffende de geschiedenis der Nederlanden 92 (1977): 181–207.Google Scholar

30. For the Liberal point of view, see Lory, Jacques, Libéralisme et instruction primaire 1842–1879. Introduction à l'étude de la lutte scolaire en Belgique, Université de Louvain, Recueil de travaux d'histoire et de philologie, 6th ser., 17, 2 vols. (Louvain, 1979).Google Scholar

31. Cf. De Vroede, , “Volksonderwijs,” 200–203.Google Scholar

32. De Opvoeding 11 (22 Mar. 1895): 41.Google Scholar

33. For what follows, see, for example, De Morgenster 12 (July 1904): 49; Ronyns, Frans Antoon, “L'Enseignement et les sociétés de tempérance comme moyens de combattre l'alcoolisme,” De Opvoeding 11 (22 Dec. 1895): 187–90; Sengers, G[uillaume], “Waarom het onderricht der jeugd de beste vorm is van het werk der matigheid,” ibid. 12 (8 July 1896): 97–98; 12 (22 July 1896): 105–6; Van Noppen, M., “De school in den strijd tegen het alcoolisme,” ibid. 13 (8 Feb. 1897): 17–18; 13 (22 Feb. 1897): 25–26.Google Scholar

34. In an article published at the end of 1886, Frans Antoon Robyns argued that the elementary school must inform the children about the great dangers of alcohol abuse: De Opvoeding 2 (8 Nov. 1886): 161. In January 1887, he encouraged teachers to establish temperance societies: ibid. 3 (8 Jan. 1887): 1. On 7 Sept. 1887 he charged the cantonal inspectors in Limburg to see to the matter: Belgium, Ministry of the Interior and Public Education, Rapport triennal sur la situation de l'instruction primaire en Belgique. Dix-septième période triennale 1891–1892–1893 (Brussels, 1896), 552.Google Scholar

35. Mielen-boven-Aalst, 1836 - Hasselt, 1903. Teacher, cantonal inspector, (1873), provincial inspector of Catholic schools in Limburg (1879), chief state inspector in the Province of Limburg (1885–1897). Author of text books and fiction.Google Scholar

36. Rapport triennal 1891–1892–1893, 550–51.Google Scholar

37. Belgium, Ministry of the Interior and Public Education, Rapport triennal sur la situation de l'instruction primaire en Belgique. Dix-neuviéme période triennale 1897–1898–1899 (Brussels, 1900), 340–65.Google Scholar

38. In the first grade, some rules regarding eating and drinking. In the second grade, the use of beer and coffee, the danger of strong drink (alcohol has no food value, is a poison, and sometimes leads to crime and insanity). In the third grade: use of drink, counterfeiting of food and drink, alcoholism and its fearful consequences in the physical, intellectual, and moral areas.Google Scholar

39. Rapport triennal 1897–1898–1899, CCII–CCIV.Google Scholar

40. Cf. ibid., 369–71 in CCXLVI.Google Scholar

41. Belgium. Ministry of the Interior and Public Education, Rapport triennal sur la situation de l'instruction primaire en Belgique. Vingtième période triennale 1900–1901–1902 (Brussels, 1904), 309–11; Belgium. Ministry of Arts and Sciences, Rapport triennal sur la situation de l'instruction primaire en Belgique. Vingt et unième période triennale 1903–1904–1905 (Brussels, 1905), 271–73; idem, Rapport triennal sur la situation de l'instruction primaire en Belgique. Vingt- deuxième période triennale 1906–1907–1908 (Brussels, 1911), 277–79; Rapport triennal 1909–1910–1911, 306–8.Google Scholar

42. Exelmans, , “De lagere school,” 75.Google Scholar

43. According to Rowntree, Seebohm, Land & Labour, 418, anti-alcohol education was given not during special classes but during the other classes. It is said that it was, thanks to the material used, quite rational.Google Scholar

44. Cf. Libot, J[os], “Toevallig matigheidsonderwijs,” De Opvoeding 14 (8 Oct. 1898): 145–46; 14 (22 Oct. 1898): 153–54; 14 (8 Nov. 1898): 161–62; 14 (22 Nov. 1898): 169–70.Google Scholar

45. Ibid. 14 (22 Oct. 1898): 154.Google Scholar

46. Examples of combined education in the language course are given in, for example, L'Ecole primaire 15 (1894): 26–27; 17 (1896): 249–50, 298; 18 (1897): 48; 19 (1898): 59, 220–21; 21 (1900): 169–70, 323–24, 357–60; 22 (1901): 36–37, 53, 185–86, 330; 23 (1902): 53–55, 244; 24 (1903): 183–84, 325; Dubois, S[ylvain] and Poriniot, L[éon], Le Livre de la tempérance. Recueil de lectures et dictées (Tournai, 1901); Le Livre de la tempérance. Recueil de lectures, dictées, etc. (Tournai 1901); Sevens, Th[eodoor], Matigheid. Voordrachten, dictaten, leesstukjes, geheugenoefeningen, opstellen, spreuken, vraagstukken, enz., voor de volksscholen (Courtrai, 1895).Google Scholar

47. Examples of such arithmetic assignments are given in, for example, Sevens, , Matigheid; Robyns, Fernand Antoon, Rekenkundige vraagstukken over alcoolisme en besparing (Maaseik, 1896); Janssen, J[ozef?] and Verbois, Th[éophile], L'Arithmétique de la tempérance. Livre du maĭtre (Tournai, 1901); Dubois, S[ylvain] and Poriniot, L[éon], Arithmétique de la tempérance. Recueil de problèmes traitant de la tempérance et de l'antialcoolisme à l'usage des écoles primaires, d'adultes, industrielles, professionnelles et des classes inférieures des écoles moyennes (Namur, 1901); L'Ecole primaire 19 (1898): 201; 22 (1901): 185.Google Scholar

48. Exelmans, , “De lagere school,” 91–92.Google Scholar

49. For a description of these periodicals, see Maurice De Vroede and others, Bijdragen tot de geschiedenis van het pedagogisch leven in België in de 19de en 20ste eeuw , vol. 2, De periodieken 1878–1895 (Ghent and Louvain, 1974), 421–32.Google Scholar

50. In addition to the already cited works of Melchior and Robyns & Robyns, the following must also be mentioned: Bauwens, Is[idoor], Het alcoholismus (Brussels, 1900); Servais, Fernand, Manuel d'enseignement antialcoolique pour le degré supérieur des écoles primaires & les cours d'adultes (Tamines, 1900); Vaslet, Edmond, Petit manuel de tempérance avec questions & responses à l'usage des écoles et des familles (Brussels, 1892).Google Scholar

51. See the circular of Robyns dated 7 Sept. 1887: Rapport triennal 1891–1892–1893, 552.Google Scholar

52. Report of Robyns to the Minister of the Interior and Public Education, dated 26 Jan. 1892: ibid., 554.Google Scholar

53. The ministerial circulars of 3 April 1892, 23 April 1892, 14 May 1892 and 31 Dec. 1892 are found in the Rapport triennal 1891–1892–1893, 550–51, 557–58, 558–59, and 561; the text of the circulars of 17 Oct. and 7 Dec. 1894 is published in: Belgium, Ministry of the Interior and Public Education, Rapport triennal sur la situation de l'instruction primaire en Belgique. Dixhuitième période triennale 1894–1895–1896 (Brussels, 1898), 636–37.Google Scholar

54. Rapport triennal 1891–1892–1893, CLXXIV.Google Scholar

55. In 1895, 1,834 societies had Fr 5,139: Rapport triennal 1894–1895–1896, 644–45. In 1899, 2,820 societies had Fr 5,838: Rapport triennal 1897–1898–1899, 426–27.Google Scholar

56. At the end of 1895, there were 1,834 societies at 4,026 schools. They had 34,158 of the 104,297 pupils (at least 11 years old): Rapport triennal 1894–1895–1896, 644–45. At the end of 1899, the societies were active in 2,820 of the 4,003 schools, the pupils being at least 11 years old. Of the 106,384 pupils, 52,850 pupils were members: Rapport triennal 1897–1898–1899, 426–27.Google Scholar

57. In 1905, 3,928 schools (with at least 11-year-old pupils) of 6,966; in 1911: 5,160 schools of 7,570. In 1905, the societies grouped 63,897 boys out of 110,180 and 18,170 girls out of 105,913; in 1911: 69,259 boys out of 118,161 and 50,539 girls out of 122,161: Rapport triennal 1903–1904–1905, 308–9; Rapport triennal 1909–1910–1911, 356–57.Google Scholar

58. Cf. Exelmans, , “De lagere school,” 61–62, 64.Google Scholar

59. Rowntree, Seebohm, Land & Labour, 418.Google Scholar

60. De Morgenster 7, (Feb. 1899): 33; report of Robyns to the Minister, dated 26 Jan. 1892, Rapport triennal 1891–1892–1893, 554.Google Scholar

61. De Opvoeding 13 (22 Feb. 1897): 25; 14 (22 Mar. 1898): 41; De Morgenster 7 (Apr. 1899): 51–52; Rapport triennal 1891–1892–1893, 561.Google Scholar

62. Report of Robyns to the Minister, dated 26 Jan. 1892, Rapport triennal 1891–1892–1893, 553; speech by Robyns during the 6th International Anti-Alcohol Congress, De Opvoeding 13 (8 Sept. 1897): 130–31.Google Scholar

63. The first were formed in 1898 in the Province of Limburg. A “model constitution” was published in De Morgenster 7 (Apr. 1899): 52–53.Google Scholar

64. Cf. ibid. 8 (Dec. 1900): 113–14.Google Scholar

65. Rapport triennal 1909–1910–1911, 358–59.Google Scholar

66. Cauderlier, Emile, A propos des sociétés scolaires de tempérance (Brussels, 1897) thus criticized the too positive interpretation that Robyns gave of the results.Google Scholar

67. The Law of 17 June 1896: Moniteur belge 66 (18 June 1896): 2333–35.Google Scholar

68. The average consumption, which was still 8.45 liters per person in 1902, dropped to 5.37 liters in 1903: Rapport triennal 1909–1910–1911, 358–59. Rowntree, Seebohm, Land & Labour, 601 gives somewhat different figures (1.84 gallons in 1902, 1.16 in 1903).Google Scholar

69. De Morgenster 21 (Jan. 1913): 2–4.Google Scholar

70. Ibid. 21 (Feb. 1913): 9.Google Scholar

71. Cf. Vandervelde, Emile, La loi sur l'alcool et ses résultats (Brussels, 1924).Google Scholar

72. Cauderlier, , L'Alcoolisme en Belgique, 28.Google Scholar