1 Doyle, Arthur Conan, “Silver Blaze,” in The Classic Illustrated Sherlock Holmes (Stamford, CT: Longmeadow Press, 1987), 185–200, quotations on 197.Google Scholar

2 Hunt, Felicity, Gender and Policy in English Education: Schooling for Girls, 1902–1944 (New York and London: Blackwell, 1991), 15.Google Scholar

3 Murphy, Gardner, Historical Introduction to Modern Psychology, rev. ed. (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1949), 359.Google Scholar

4 Lowe, Roy, “Eugenicists, Doctors, and the Quest for National Efficiency, 1900–1939,” History of Education 8 (1979): 293–306; Sutherland, Gillian Ability, Merit, and Measurement: Mental Testing and English Education, 1880–1940 (Oxford: Clarenden Press, 1984); Drewek, Peter “Begabungstheorie, Begabungsforschung und Bildungssystem in Deutschland, 1890–1918,” in Jeismann, Karl-Ernst ed., Bildung, Staat und Gesellschaft im 19. Jahrhundert (Stuttgart: F. Steiner, 1989), 387–412.Google Scholar

5 Cummings, Eric, “The Relationship between Popular American Conceptions of Intelligence from 1900 to 1925 and the Rapid Adoption of Intelligence Testing in Schools,” and Jana Noel, “Intelligence Test Developers, Eugenics, and the Immigration Restriction Act of 1924,” both papers presented at the 2002 annual meeting of the History of Education Society; Herrnstein, Richard J. and Murray, Charles, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: Free Press, 1994), 275. I would like to thank Cummings and Noel for sharing their papers with me.Google Scholar

6 Rosenberg, Rosalind, Beyond Separate Spheres: Intellectual Roots of Modern Feminism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982), 107.Google Scholar

7 Mill, John Stuart, On Liberty and Other Writings, ed. Collini, Stefan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 203.Google Scholar

8 Transactions of the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science, Birmingham Meeting, 1868 (London: John W. Parker, 1869), 107.Google Scholar

9 Hardy le Beaulieu's essay in the Revue trimestrielle as cited in Gubin, Eliane, “Libéralisme, féminisme et enseignement des filles en Belgique aux 19e-début 20e siècles,” in Nandrin, Jean-Pierre and van Ypersele, Laurence eds., Politique, imaginaire et education: Mélanges en l'honneur du professeur Jacques Lory (Brussels: Facultés Universitaires Saint-Louis, 2000), 164; Gabelli, Aristide “L'Italia e l'istruzione femminile,” Nuova antologia 15 (1870), 160; Sonnino, Sidney Lettere di Sidney Sonnino ad Emilia Peruzzi, 1872–1878, ed. Carlucci, Paolo (Pisa: Scuola Normale Suponore, 1998), 74, 86, 92; Lange, Helene Lebenserinnerungen (Berlin: F.A. Herbig, 1930), 111.Google Scholar

10 Albisetti, James C., “Un-Learned Lessons from the New World? English Views of American Coeducation and Women's Colleges,” History of Education 29: 5 (September 2000): 473–89, esp. 476–78; Bakker, Nelleke and van Essen, Mineke “No Matter of Principle—The Unproblematic Character of Coeducation in Girls’ Secondary Schooling in the Netherlands, ca. 1870–1930,” History of Education Quarterly 39:4 (Winter 1999): 454–475; Soldani, Simonetta “S'emparer de l'avenir: les jeunes filles dans les écoles postélémentaires de l'Italie unifiée,” Paedagogica Historica 40, No. 1–2 (February 2004): 123–142; Frago, Antonio Viñao “Espacios masculinos, espacious femininos: El acceso de la mujer al bachillerato,” in Sociedad Española de historia de la educación, Mujer y educación in España, 1868–1975 (Santiago: Universidade De Santiago, 1990), 567–77.Google Scholar

11 Otto-Peters, Louise, Das erste Vierteljahrhundert des Allgemeinen Deutschen Frauenvereins (Leipzig: M. Schãfer, 1890), 15; Hainisch, Marianne Zur Frage des Frauenunterrichts (Vienna: Frauen-Erwerb-Verein, 1870), 12; Bidelman, Patrick K. Pariahs Stand Up! The Founding of the Liberal Feminist Movement in France, 1858–1889 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1982), 112; Scott, Joan Wallach Only Paradoxes to Offer: French Feminists and the Rights of Man (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996), 100.Google Scholar

12 Bascou-Bance, P., “La première femme bachelière: Julie Daubié,” Bulletin de l'Association Guillaume Budé, 4th ser., 1 (March 1972): 107–113; Mayer, Amalie ed., Geschichte der österreichischen Mädchenmittelschule (Vienna, 1952), 28–29, 35; Bonner, Thomas N. To the Ends of the Earth: Women's Search for Education in Medicine (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); Wild, Inge de Aletta Jacobs in Groningen (Groningen: Universiteitsmuseum, 1979), esp. 46–56; Albisetti, James C. Schooling German Girls and Women: Secondary and Higher Education in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989), 122–23; idem, “Portia ante Portas: Women and the Legal Profession in Europe, ca. 1870–1925,” Journal of Social History 33:4 (Summer 2000): 825–57, esp. 829–32. Bonner's excellent book omits all mention of Aletta Jacobs, the first female physician in the Netherlands. See the article about her by Nelleke Bakker in this issue.Google Scholar

13 McWilliams-Tullberg, Rita, Women at Cambridge, rev. ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 58, 69; Fitch, Joshua Educational Aims and Methods: Lectures and Addresses (New York: Macmillan, 1900), 404.Google Scholar

14 Rowold, Katharina, “The Many Lives and Deaths of Sofia Kovalevskaia: Approaches to Women's Role in Scholarship and Culture at the Turn of the Twentieth Century,” Women's History Review 10, no. 4 (2001): 603–27, quotations on 604 and 614. See also Koblitz, Ann Hibner A Convergence of Lives: Sofia Kovalevskaia—Scientist, Writer, Revolutionary, reprint ed. (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1993).Google Scholar

15 Albisetti, , “Portia ante Portas,” 831–32; Delfosse, Marianne Emilie Kempin-Spyri (Zurich: Schulthess, 1994). A popular novel about her took its title from this image of “wax-winged” Icarus: Hasler, Eveline Die Wachsflügelfrau: Die Geschichte der Emily Kempin-Spyri (Zurich: Nagel & Kimche, 1991).Google Scholar

16 Burstyn, Joan, Victorian Education and the Ideal of Womanhood (London: Croom Helm, 1980), 99–116; Dupanloup, Félix Nouvelles oeuvres choisis de Mgr. Dupanloup vol. 3: Controverse sur l'éducation des filles (Paris: E. Plon, 1874), passim; Godts, Francis Xavier Erreuers et crimes en fait de l'éducation: le f”eminisme condamné par les principes de théologie et de philosophie (Roulers: J.de Meesber, 1903), 255. For further discussion of Catholic attitudes, see Albisetti, James C. “Catholics and Coeducation: Rhetoric and Reality before Divini Illius Magistri,” Paedagogica Historica 35, No. 3 (1999): 667–96.Google Scholar

17 Mill, , On Liberty and Other Writings, 180–82; Darwin, Charles The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex, 2 vols. (London: J. Murray, 1871), 2: 326–27; Spencer, Herbert The Study of Sociology, 22nd ed. (London: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1908), 373. This work first appeared in 1873.Google Scholar

18 Clarke, Edward N., Sex in Education, or a Fair Chance for the Girls (Boston: J.R. Osgood, 1873); Maudsley, Henry “Sex in Mind and Education,” Fortnightly Review 21 (1874): 466–83; Zschoche, Sue “Dr. Clarke Revisited: Science, True Womanhood, and Female College Education,” History of Education Quarterly 29:4 (Winter 1989): 545–70; Burstyn, Victorian Education, 84–96, 149–51; Bischoff, Theodor von Das Studium und die Ausübung der Medizin durch Frauen (Munich: T. Riede, 1872), esp. 14–16, 21.Google Scholar

19 Gubin, , “Libéralisme,” 171; Paul Möbius, Über den physiologischen Schwachsinn des Weibes (Halle: Marhold, 1900); Weininger, Otto Geschlecht und Charakter (Vienna: W. Branmüller, 1903).Google Scholar

20 Godts, Erreurs et crimes, 153; Rösler, Augustin, “Die Frauenfrage,” Historisch-politische Blätter für das katholische Deutschland 127 (1901): 884.Google Scholar

21 Ross, Dorothy, G. Stanley Hall: The Psychologist as Prophet (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972), 267; Hall, G. Stanley Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Relations to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion, and Education, 2 vols. (New York, Appleton, 1904), 2: 561–62, 570, 589, 602. See also “The Budding Girl” in Hall, G. Stanley Educational Problems, 2 vols. (New York: D. Appleton, 1911), 2: 1–40.Google Scholar

22 Hall, , Adolescence, 2: 617, 618, 635.Google Scholar

23 Over two decades after publication of Adolescence, Margaret Mead conceived of her research in Samoa as an effort to show that what Hall called the “storm and stress” of female adolescence was a product of American nurture, not of nature: Coming of Age in Samoa (New York: W. Morrow, 1928), 2.Google Scholar

24 Findlay, M. E., “The Education of Girls,” The Paidologist 7 (1905), 83–93, quotation on 90; Burstall, Sara A. English High Schools for Girls: Their Aim, Organisation and Management (London: Macmillan, 1907), 13; Welton, James The Psychology of Education (London: Longmans, Green, 1912), esp. 127–28, 135–36. On English developments in general, see Hunt, Gender and Policy, 21–31.Google Scholar

25 Compayré, Gabriel, L'adolescence: Études de psychologie et de pédagogie, 2d ed. (Paris, 1910), 123; Schuyten, Médard L'éducation de la femme (Paris: O. Doin, 1908), 129, 175–76; Bakker, Nelleke “A Curious Inconsistency: Coeducation in Secondary Education in the Netherlands, 1900–1960,” in Majorek, Czeslaw et al., eds., Schooling in Changing Societies: Historical and Comparative Perspectives [Paedagogica Historica, Suppl. Series, Vol. 4] (Gent, 1998): 273–92, quotation on 279; Heymans, Gerard Die Psychologie der Frauen (Heidelberg: C. Winter, 1910).Google Scholar

26 Depaepe, Marc, Zum Wohl des Kindes? Pädologie, pädagogische Psychologie und experimentelle Pädagogik in Europe und dem USA, 1890–1940 (Weinheim: Deutscher Studien Verlag, 1993).Google Scholar

27 There are no mentions of fatigue or overburdening in relation to girls in Angelo Mosso, Fatigue, trans. Drummond, Margaret and Drummond, W. B. (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1904 [originally published 1891]); Bürgerstein, Leo “Die Arbeitskurve einer Schulstunde,” Zeitschrift für Schulgesundheitspflege 4 (1891): 543–63; Kraepelin, Emil Zur Überbürdungsfrage (Jena: G. Fischer, 1897); or Offner, Max Mental Fatigue, trans. Guy Montrose Whipple (Baltimore: Warwick & York, 1911).Google Scholar

28 Binet, Alfred, L'étude experimentale de l'intelligence (Paris: Schleicher Fróres, 1903); Wolf, Theta H. Alfred Binet (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973), 21, 139; Sutherland, Ability, chaps. 1–3.Google Scholar

29 Thompson, Helen Bradford, The Mental Traits of Sex: An Experimental Investigation of the Normal Mind in Men and Women (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1903), 93, 134–35, 171–72, 181. Gerard Heymans did not see Thompson's work as contradicting his view of psychological differences between the sexes: Psychologie der Frauen, 88, 115.Google Scholar

30 Thorndike, Edward L., “Sex in Education,” The Bookman 23 (1906), 211–14; idem, Educational Psychology, Vol. 3: Mental Work and Fatigue and Individual Differences and Their Causes (New York: Teachers College, 1914), 169, 186. See also Seller, Maxine “G. Stanley Hall and Edward Thorndike on the Education of Women: Theory and Policy in the Progressive Era,” Educational Studies 11 (1980–81), 365–74.Google Scholar

31 Terman, Lewis, Measurement of Intelligence (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1916), 68, 70, 72; Minton, Henry L. Lewis M. Terman: Pioneer of Psychological Testing (New York: New York University Press, 1988), esp. 27–28, 96.Google Scholar

32 Burt, Cyril and Moore, Robert C., “The Mental Differences between the Sexes ,” Journal of Experimental Psychology 1 (1911–12): 273–84, 355–88, quotation on 378; Cyril Burt, Mental and Scholastic Tests (London, 1922), 196. See also Rogers, Agnes and McIntyre, J. L. “The Measurement of Intelligence in Children by the Binet-Simon Scale,” British Journal of Psychology 7:3 (October 1914): 265–99.Google Scholar

33 Cohn, Jonas and Dieffenbacher, Julius, Untersuchungen über Geschlechts-, Alters- und Begabungsunterschiede bei Schüler (Leipzig: J.A. Barth, 1911), esp. 196–97.Google Scholar

34 Meumann, Ernst, Vorlesungen zur Einführung in die experimentelle Pädagogik und ihren psychologischen Grundlagen, 2d, rev. ed., 3 vols. (Leipzig: W. Engelmann, 1911–14), 2: 757–61; idem, “Die soziale Bedeutung der Intelligenzprüfung,” Zeitschrift für pädagogische Psychologie und experimentelle Pädagogik 14 (1913): 433–40. On Meumann's work and influence, see also Drewek, “Begabungstheorie.”Google Scholar

35 Bürgerstein, Leo, “Co-education and Hygiene with Special Reference to European Experience and Views,” The Pedagogical Seminary 17, no. 1 (March 1910): 1–15, quotations on 10, 13. On his visit to Clark University, see Ross, G. Stanley Hall, 389.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

36 Sutherland, , Ability, chaps. 7 and 8.Google Scholar

37 Thorndike, Educational Psychology, 3: 169; Burt, and Moore, , “Mental Differences,” 388.Google Scholar

38 Albisetti, , “Catholics and Coeducation,” 684–86, 692–94.Google Scholar

39 Flich, Renate, Wider der Natur der Frau? Entstehungsgeschichte der höheren Mädchenschule in Österreich (Vienna: Bundes Ministerium für Unterncht und kunst, 1992), 94; Simon, Gertrud Hintertreppen zum Elfenbeinturm: Höhere Mädchenbildung in Österreich, Anfänge und Entwicklungen (Vienna: Wiener Frauenverlag, 1993), 218; Mikula, Regina “‘Die Verweiblichung der Buben und eine Vermännlichung der Mädchen': Die Koedukationsdebatte im 20. Jahrhundert,” in Brehmer, Ilse and Simon, Gertrud eds., Geschichte der Frauenbildung und Mädchenerziehung in Österreich (Graz: Leykam, 1997), 235–60.Google Scholar

40 Albisetti, , “Catholics and Coeducation,” 687–88.Google Scholar

41 Shirley, Dennis, The Politics of Progressive Education: The Odenwaldschule in Nazi Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); Hannelore Faulstich-Wieland, Koedukation—enttäuschte Hoffnungen? (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgeseu-Schaft, 1991), esp. 26–29. On the rapid eclipse of experimental psychology in Germany, see Drewek, Peter “Educational Studies as an Academic Discipline in Germany at the Beginning of the Twentieth Century,” in Drewek, Peter and Lüth, Christoph eds., History of Educational Sciences [Paedagogica Historica, Suppl. Series, Vol. 3], 2 vols. (Gent, 1998) 1: 175–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

42 Brice, Ian, “The Early Coeducation Movement in English Secondary Education,” Melbourne Studies in Education, 1980 (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1980), 134–77; Brehony, Kevin “Co-education: Perspectives and Debates in the Early Twentieth Century,” in Deem, Rosemary ed., Co-education Reconsidered (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1984), 1–20; Hunt, Gender and Policy, 22, 64; Great Britain Board of Education, Report of the Consultative Committee on the Education of the Adolescent (London: H.M. Stationery Office, 1926), 91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

43 Hartnacke, Wilhelm, Das Problem der Auslese der Tüchtigen: Einige Gedanken und Vorschläge zur Organisation des Schulwesens nach dem Kriege, 2d ed. (Leipzig: Quelle & Meyer, 1916). On his future career, see Lamberti, Marjorie The Politics of Education: Teachers and School Reform in Weimar Germany (New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2002), 230.Google Scholar

44 Schuyten, Médard, “Zur Frage der Koedukation,” Zeitschrift für pädagogische Psychologie und experimentelle Pädagogik 12 (1911), 182. See also Depaepe, Marc “The Pedologist Médard Schuyten: An Insane Positivist or Just a Starry-Eyed Idealist?” in Drewek and Lüth, eds., History of Educational Sciences, 1: 209–29.Google Scholar

45 Hunt, , Gender and Policy, 72 104; Slaughter, J. W. The Adolescent (London: G. Allen & Unwin, 1922), v, 95, 96; Low, Barbara Psychoanalysis and Education (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1928), 191.Google Scholar

46 Wegscheider-Ziegler, Hildegard, “Erfahrungen im Gymnasialunterricht für Mädchen als Beitrag zur Frage der gemeinschaftlichen Erziehung beider Geschlechter,” Zeitschrift für pädagogische Psychologie 4 (1902): 212–22; Baale cited in Bakker and van Essen, “No Matter of Principle,” 466–67; Nef, Willi “Über Koedukation am Gymnasium,” Zeitschrift für pädagogische Psychologie 14 (1913): 513–24.Google Scholar

47 Tumlirz, Otto, Die seelische Unterschiede zwischen den Geschlechtern in der Reifezeit und ihre Bedeutung für den gemeinsamen Unterricht (Langensalza: H. Beyer, 1927), 181; Howard, B. A. The Mixed School: A Study of Coeducation (London: University of London Press, 1928), 83; Wheeler, Olive Youth: The Psychology of Adolescence and Its Bearing on the Reorganization of Adolescent Education (London: University of London Press, 1924), 83; Findlay, J. J. The Foundations of Education, Vol. 2: The Practise of Education (New York: University of London Press, 1928), 191.Google Scholar

48 Heymans, Gerard, “Verschiedenheiten der Altersentwicklung bei männlichen und weiblichen Mittelschüler,” in Gesammelte kleinere Schriften zur Philosophie und Psychologie, 3 vols. (The Hague: M. Nijhoff, 1927), 548–71, quotation on 570. This essay first appeared in 1916.Google Scholar

49 Krogh-Jensen, Georg, “Der Unterschied in männlicher und weiblicher Entwicklungstempo und seine Bedeutung für die moderne Koedukationsfrage,” Archiv für die gesamte Psychologie 45 (1923): 1–82, quotation on 17.Google Scholar

50 Brooks, Barbara Stoddard Jensen, Dortha Williams and Terman, Lewis M. Genetic Studies of Genius, vol. 3: The Promise of Youth: Follow-Up Studies of a Thousand Gifted Children (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1930), 61; Minton, Lewis M. Terman, 141–42; Thorndike, Educational Psychology, 3: 169.Google Scholar

51 Dunstan, John, “Coeducation and Revolution: Responses to Mixed Schooling in Early Twentieth-Century Russia,” History of Education 26: 4 (1997): 375–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

52 Otto Anderssen's comments in Ioteyko, Iosefa ed., Premier Congrès international de pédologie, 2 vols. (Brussels: Misch & Thron, 1912), 1: 67.Google Scholar

53 Burstall, Sara A., Impressions of American Education in 1908 (London: Longmans, Green, 1909), 259; Bakker, “A Curious Inconsistency,” 273.Google Scholar