¹ DuBois, W. E. B., The Education of Black People: Ten Critiques, 1906–1960 ed. Aptheker, Herbert (New York, 1973), 77. The history of education is intimately related to all other areas of history and cannot be understood in isolation from political, social, economic, and institutional history. Nowhere is this clearer than in African American history, in which the social embeddedness of education is sharply illustrated. However, in order to keep this discussion within reasonable bounds, this essay and accompanying notes are limited to the scholarship specifically related to the history of black education, with a handful of exceptions.Google Scholar

² For alternative periodization, see Franklin, Vincent P., “Introductory Essay: Changing Historical Perspectives on Afro-American Life and Education,” in New Perspectives on Black Educational History, ed. Franklin, Vincent P. and Anderson, James D. (Boston, 1978), 1–18; and Meier, August and Rudwick, Elliott, Black History and the Historical Profession, 1915–1980 (Urbana, Ill., 1986). Franklin relies on a traditional historiographic periodization; Meier and Rudwick are less concerned with changing interpretation than with the growth of black history. Both add important dimensions to the dialogue, much of which I have not sought to repeat in this essay.Google Scholar

³ Woodson, Carter G., The Education of the Negro Prior to 1861 … (1919; reprint, New York, 1968); DuBois, W. E. B., ed., The Negro Common School (Atlanta, Ga., 1901); Birnie, C. W., “Education of the Negro in Charleston, South Carolina, Prior to the Civil War,” Journal of Negro History 12 (Jan. 1927): 13–21; Jackson, Luther P., “Religious Instruction of Negroes, 1830–1860, with Special Reference to South Carolina,” Journal of Negro History 15 (Jan. 1930): 72–114; Vibert, Faith, “The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts: Its Work for the Negroes in North America before 1783,” Journal of Negro History 18 (Apr. 1933): 171–212; on postelementary education, see, e.g., Daniel, W. A., The Education of Negro Ministers (1925; reprint, New York, 1969); Clement, Rufus E., “The Church School as a Social Factor in Negro Life,” Journal of Negro History 12 (Jan. 1927): 5–12; Jackson, Reid E., “Rise of Teacher-Training for Negroes,” Journal of Negro Education 7 (Oct. 1938): 540–47; and DuBois, W. E. B. and Granville Dill, August, eds., The College-Bred Negro American (Atlanta, Ga., 1910); for informal agencies, see, e.g., Johnson, Charles S., “The Rise of the Negro Magazine,” Journal of Negro History 13 (Jan. 1928): 7–21; Porter, Dorothy B., “The Organized Educational Activities of Negro Literary Societies, 1828–1846,” Journal of Negro Education 5 (Oct. 1936): 555–76; Birnie, , “Education of the Negro in Charleston”; Edward Moorland, Jesse, “The Young Men's Christian Association among Negroes,” Journal of Negro History 9 (Apr. 1924): 127–38; Johnson, Campbell C., “Negro Youth and the Educational Program of the Y.M.C.A.,” Journal of Negro Education 9 (July 1940): 354–71; Cuthbert, Marion, “Negro Youth and the Educational Program of the Y.W.C. A.,” Journal of Negro Education 9 (July 1940): 363–71; few institutional biographies were written in this period, but see Francis Greenwood Peabody, Education for Life: The Story of Hampton Institution (Garden City, N.Y., 1918); and Jackson, Luther P., “The Origins of Hampton Institute,” Journal of Negro History 10 (Apr. 1925): 131–49; on education in the North, see also Carroll, J. C., “The Beginnings of Public Education for Negroes in Indiana,” Journal of Negro Education 8 (Oct. 1939): 649–58.Google Scholar

⁴ DuBois, W. E. B., The Souls of Black Folk (1903; reprint, New York, 1969), 64 (first quotation), 67, 71; idem, Negro Common School, 21–42, second quotation on 40; idem, Black Reconstruction in America, 1860–1880 (1935; reprint, Cleveland, 1964), 637–69. See also Jackson, Luther P., “The Educational Efforts of the Freedmen's Bureau and Freedmen's Aid Societies in South Carolina, 1862–1872,” Journal of Negro History 8 (Jan. 1923): 1–40; Kassel, Charles, “Educating the Slave—A Forgotten Chapter of Civil War History,” Open Court 41 (Apr. 1927): 239–56; Eggleston, G. K., “The Work of Relief Societies during the Civil War,” Journal of Negro History 14 (July 1929): 272–99.Google Scholar

⁵ Sullivan Williams, Henry, “The Development of the Negro Public School System in Missouri,” Journal of Negro History 5 (Apr. 1920): 137–65; Woodson, Carter G., Early Negro Education in West Virginia (Institute, W.Va., 1921); Ambush Taylor, Alrutheus, The Negro in South Carolina during the Reconstruction (1924; reprint, New York, 1969): 82–105; Ambush Taylor, Arutheus, “The Negro in the Reconstruction of Virginia,” Journal of Negro History 11 (Apr. 1926): 379–415; Sherman Savage, W., “Legal Provisions for Negro Schools in Missouri from 1865 to 1890,” Journal of Negro History 16 (July 1931): 309–21; Sherman Savage, W., “Legal Provisions for Negro Schools in Missouri from 1891 to 1935,” Journal of Negro History 22 (July 1937): 335–44; DuBois, , Negro Common School; Lance G. E. Jones, Negro Schools in the Southern States (Oxford, Eng., 1928).Google Scholar

⁶ DuBois, Woodson, Taylor, and others documented segregation and exclusion, of course. But separation remained a minor issue in these studies, not a theme of significance. Savage, “Legal Provisions for Negro Schools in Missouri, 1865–1890,” 309–21; idem, “Legal Provisions for Negro Schools in Missouri, 1891–1935,” 335–44; and idem, “Early Negro Education in the Pacific Coast States,” Journal of Negro Education 15 (Spring 1946): 134–39, focused more fully on legal and legislative issues than most contemporary African American education historians; hence, his studies are among the few that make racial segregation a theme.Google Scholar

⁷ Even the few studies whose theme appears to be industrial education frequently do not provide rigorous histories of the idea or its effects. Peabody's Education for Life, for instance, is an extended panegyric.Google Scholar

⁸ Jesse Jones, Thomas, ed., Negro Education: A Study of the Private and Higher Schools for Colored People in the U.S. (Washington, D.C., 1917); DuBois, , Negro Common School, 42; see also Washington, Booker T. and DuBois, W. E. B., The Negro in the South … ([1907?]; reprint, New York, 1970): 102–3, 114. Jones, however, wrote largely in support of continued segregation.Google Scholar

⁹ Wright, Richard R., A Brief Historical Sketch of Negro Education in Georgia (Savannah, Ga., 1894), 50, 52; see also, Peabody, Education for Life; Funke, Loretta, “The Negro in Education,” Journal of Negro History 5 (Jan. 1920): 1–21; Diggs, Margaret A., Catholic Negro Education in the United States (Washington, D.C., 1936).Google Scholar

¹⁰ Porter, , “Organized Educational Activities of Negro Literary Societies,” 576. See also Taylor, “Negro in the Reconstruction of Virginia,” 414; Birnie, , “Education of the Negro in Charleston”; Woodson, , Early Negro Education in West Virginia DuBois, , Negro Common School, 21–42, 91; Johnson, Charles S., “Rise of the Negro Magazine”; Jackson, Reid E., “Rise of Teacher-Training for Negroes”; Clement, “Church School as a Social Factor”; Leidecker, Kurt F., “The Education of Negroes in St. Louis, Missouri, during William Torrey Harris’ Administration,” Journal of Negro Education 10 (Oct. 1941): 643–49.Google Scholar

¹¹ DuBois, , Souls of Black Folk 127; Daniel, , The Education of Negro Ministers, 28 and passim; Clement, “Church School as a Social Factor.”Google Scholar

¹² DuBois, , Negro Common School 118.Google Scholar

¹³ Horace Fitchett, E., “The Influence of Claflin College on Negro Family Life,” Journal of Negro History 29 (Oct. 1944): 459; see, among others, Preston, Emmett D. Jr., “Development of Negro Education in the District of Columbia,” Journal of Negro Education 9 (Oct. 1940): 595–603; Preston, , “The Development of Negro Education in the District of Columbia, 1800–1860,” Journal of Negro Education 12 (Spring 1943): 189–98.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Jackson, Luther P., “Religious Instruction of Negroes,” 72.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Knight, Edgar W., “The ‘Messianic’ Invasion of the South after 1865,” School and Society, 5 June 1943, 647, 645. See also idem, “Reconstruction and Education in South Carolina,” South Atlantic Quarterly 18 (Oct. 1919): 350–64 and 19 (Jan. 1920): 55–66; idem, Public School Education in North Carolina (1916; reprint, New York, 1969): esp. 265; deRoulhac Hamilton, J. G., “The Freedmen's Bureau in North Carolina,” South Atlantic Quarterly 8 (Jan. 1909): 53–67 and (Apr. 1909): 154–63.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Lee Swint, Henry, The Northern Teacher in the South, 1862–1870 (1941; reprint, New York, 1967).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁷ Grayson Noble, Stuart, Forty Years of the Public Schools in Mississippi, with Special Reference to the Education of the Negro (New York, 1918): 75–89, quotation on 82. See also Charles Dabney, Universal Education in the South, 2 vols. (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1936).Google Scholar

¹⁸ Mann Bond, Horace, The Education of the Negro in the American Social Order (1934; reprint with new preface and additional chapter, New York, 1966), 13.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Mann Bond, Horace, Negro Education in Alabama: A Study in Cotton and Steel (1939; reprint, New York, 1969), 141.Google Scholar

²⁰ Harlan, Louis R., Separate and Unequal: Public School Campaigns and Racism in the Southern Seaboard States, 1901–1915 (1958; reprint, New York, 1968); Preston Vaughn, William, Schools for All: The Blacks and Public Education in the South, 1865–1877 (Lexington, Ky., 1974); Allen Bullock, Henry, A History of Negro Education in the South: From 1619 to the Present (1967; reprint, New York, 1970). On the history of northern black education written during this period, see, e.g., L. D. Reddick, “The Education of Negroes in States Where Separate Schools Are Not Legal,” Journal of Negro Education 16 (Summer 1947): 290–300; McGinnis, Frederick A., The Education of Negroes in Ohio (Wilberforce, Ohio, 1962); Manola Wright, Marion, The Education of Negroes in New Jersey (New York, 1941). Southern state studies include William R. Davis, The Development and Present Status of Negro Education in East Texas (New York, 1934); Whitener, Daniel J., “The Republican Party and Public Education in North Carolina, 1867–1900,” North Carolina Historical Review 37 (July 1960): 382–96; Bond, , Negro Education in Alabama; Hugh Victor Brown, History of the Education of Negroes in North Carolina (Raleigh, N.C., 1961). Cf. Hollis Moody Long, Public Secondary Education for Negroes in North Carolina (New York, 1932), a sociological approach.Google Scholar

²¹ See, among others, Alderson, William T. Jr., “The Freedmen's Bureau and Negro Education in Virginia “ North Carolina Historical Review 29 (Jan. 1952): 64–90; Lowe, W. A., “The Freedmen's Bureau and Education in Maryland,” Maryland Historical Magazine 47 (Mar. 1952): 29–39; Abbott, Martin, “The Freedmen's Bureau and Negro Schooling in South Carolina,” South Carolina Historical Magazine 57 (Apr. 1956): 65–81; Richardson, Joe M., “The Freedmen's Bureau and Negro Education in Florida,” Journal of Negro Education 31 (Fall 1962): 460–67.Google Scholar

²² Davis, William, Negro Education in East Texas 137; Harlan, , Separate and Unequal, 269; see also Knox, Ellis O., “The Origins and Development of the Negro Separate School,” Journal of Negro Education 16 (Summer 1947): 269–79; Wright, Marion, Education of Negroes in New Jersey. Google Scholar

²³ Noble, Jeanne L., The Negro Woman's College Education (New York, 1956), 18; Johnson, Charles S., The Negro College Graduate (1938; reprint, College Park, Md., 1969), 339; see also Range, Willard, The Rise and Progress of Negro Colleges in Georgia, 1865–1949 (Athens, Ga., 1951); Gallagher, Buell G., American Caste and the Negro College (1938; reprint, New York, 1966); Vera Cuthbert, Marion, Education and Marginality: A Study of the Negro Woman College Graduate (New York, 1942); Oliver Wendell Holmes, Dwight, The Evolution of the Negro College (1934; reprint, New York, 1970); Mann Bond, Horace, “The Evolution and Present Status of Negro Higher and Professional Education in the United States,” Journal of Negro Education 17 (Summer 1948): 224–35; Mann Bond, Horace, “The Origin and Development of Negro Church Colleges,” Journal of Negro Education 29 (Summer 1960): 217–26. Among institutional biographies from the period, see Frederick A. McGinnis, A History and Interpretation of Wilberforce University (Wilberforce, Ohio, 1941); and Neyland, Leedell W. and Riley, John W., The History of Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University (Gainesville, Fla., 1963). Elisabeth S. Peck, Berea's First Century, 1855–1955 (Lexington, Ky., 1955), deals briefly with Berea while it was an integrated college.Google Scholar

²⁴ Bond, , Negro Education in Alabama 215. Range, Negro Colleges in Georgia, 78; Meier, August, “The Beginning of Industrial Education in Negro Schools,” Midwest Journal 7 (Spring 1955): 21–44; Meier, August, “The Vogue of Industrial Education,” Midwest Journal 7 (Fall 1955): 241–66. Bullock, Negro Education in the South, addresses industrial education desultorily, but is less willing to dismiss industrial education altogether; see esp. 100–102, 159–60.Google Scholar

²⁵ Whitney Leavell, Ullin, Philanthropy in Negro Education (1930; reprint, Westport, Conn., 1970), 57–58; Bond, , Education of the Negro, 148–50; see also, Bond, Negro Education in Alabama, 262–86; Jones, Lance G. E., The Jeanes Teacher in the United States, 1908–1933: An Account of Twenty-five Years’ Experience in the Supervision of Negro Rural Schools (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1937); Holmes, , Evolution of the Negro College, esp. 14, 69–71; Fosdick, Raymond B., Adventure in Giving: The Story of the General Education Board, a Foundation Established by John D. Rockefeller (New York, 1962).Google Scholar

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²⁹ Wright, Marion, Education of Negroes in New Jersey 194; Reddick, , “Education of Negroes Where Separate Schools Are Not Equal,” esp. 300; Davis, John W., “The Negro Land-Grant College,” Journal of Negro Education 2 (July 1933): 315; McGinnis, , Education of Negroes in Ohio, xii; Newby, Robert G. and Tyack, David B., “Victims without ‘Crimes': Some Historical Perspectives on Black Education,” Journal of Negro Education 40 (Summer 1971): 192–206; Myrdal, Gunnar, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (New York, 1944).Google Scholar

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³² Harlan, , Separate and Unequal xvii; others in this dissenting tradition include Knox, “Origins and Development of the Negro Separate School”; and Aptheker, Herbert, “Literacy, the Negro, and World War II,” Journal of Negro Education 15 (Fall 1946): 595–602; Bond, , Negro Education in Alabama; Bond, , Education of the Negro. Bond moved closer to liberal integrationism by the 1960s, however. In 1934 he wrote that it was “highly possible that [the] day will never come” when blacks would become “full participants in the American social order” (Education of the Negro, 4). However, in the new preface and conclusion to this book, written in 1966, he expressed a cautious optimism toward assimilation, and embraced the “tangle of pathologies” explanation of black culture. Thus, he appears to have abandoned his focus on systemic bases for oppression and rooted his analysis in the family and culture of black America instead.Google Scholar

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³⁴ Ibid., 34, 60–88.Google Scholar

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⁴³ Anderson, James D., “Northern Foundations and the Shaping of Southern Black Rural Education, 1902–1935,” History of Education Quarterly 18 (Winter 1978): 371–96; idem, “The Southern Improvement Company: Northern Reformers’ Investment in Negro Cotton Tenancy, 1900–1920,” Agricultural History 52 (Jan. 1978): 111–31; idem, “Northern Philanthropy and the Training of the Black Leadership: Fisk University, A Case Study, 1915–1930,” in New Perspectives, ed. Franklin and Anderson, 97–112; idem, “Education as a Vehicle for the Manipulation of Black Workers,” in Work, Technology, and Education: Dissenting Essays in the Intellectual Foundations of American Education, ed. Walter Feinberg and Henry Rosemont, Jr. (Urbana, 1975): 15–40; Quinn Kelley, Don, “Ideology and Education: Uplifting the Masses in Nineteenth-Century Alabama,” Phylon 40 (June 1979): 147–58; Stephen Peeps, J. M., “Northern Philanthropy and the Emergence of Black Higher Education—Do-Gooders, Compromisers, or Co-conspirators?” Journal of Negro Education 50 (Summer 1981): 251–69; Spivey, Donald, Schooling for the New Slavery: Black Industrial Education, 1868–1915 (Westport, Conn., 1978).Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Institutional biographies include Jones, Edward A., Candle in the Dark Logan, Rayford W., Howard University: The First Hundred Years, 1867–1967 (New York, 1969); Bacote, Clarence A., The Story of Atlanta University: A Century of Service, 1865–1965 (Atlanta, Ga., 1969); Mann Bond, Horace, Education for Freedom: A History of Lincoln University, Pennsylvania (Lincoln University, Pa., 1976); Stanford Cozart, Leland, A Venture of Faith: Barber-Scotia College, 1867–1967 (Charlotte, N.C., 1976); Campbell, Clarence T. and Allan Rogers, Oscar Jr., Mississippi: The View from Tougaloo (Jackson, Miss., 1979); Zella, J. Patterson, Black, Langston University: A History (Norman, Okla., 1979); and Richardson, Joe M., A History of Fisk University, 1865–1946 (University, Ala., 1980). On other issues in higher education, see, e.g., John E. Fleming, The Lengthening Shadow of Slavery: A Historical Justification for Affirmative Action for Blacks in Higher Education (Washington, D.C., 1976); Shannon, Samuel H., “Land-Grant College Legislation and Black Tennesseans: A Case Study in the Politics of Education,” History of Education Quarterly 22 (Summer 1982): 139–57; Pearson, Ralph L., “Reflections on Black Colleges: The Historical Perspective of Charles S. Johnson,” History of Education Quarterly 23 (Spring 1983): 55–68. On black professional training and organizations, see Alfred A. Moss, Jr., The American Negro Academy: Voice of the Talented Tenth (Baton Rouge, La., 1981): 304; see also Summerville, James, Educating Black Doctors: A History of Me harry Medical College (University, Ala., 1983); Clark Hine, Darlene, “The Pursuit of Professional Equality: Meharry Medical College, 1921–1938, A Case Study,” in New Perspectives, ed. Franklin, and Anderson, , 173–92; Parker, Kellis E. and Stebman, Betty J., “Legal Education for Blacks,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 407 (May 1973): 144–55; Rae McNeil, Genna, “To Meet the Group Needs: The Transformation of Howard University School of Law, 1920–1935,” in New Perspectives, ed. Franklin, and Anderson, , 149–71; Perry, Thelma D., The History of the American Teachers Association (Washington, D.C., 1975); Middleton, Ernest J., “The Louisiana Education Association, 1901–1970,” Journal of Negro Education 47 (Fall 1978): 363–78.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ Homel, , Down from Equality Schwartz, Bernard, Swann's Way: The Second Busing Case and the Supreme Court (New York, 1986); Pride, Richard A. and David Woodard, J., The Burden of Busing: The Politics of Desegregation in Nashville (Knoxville, Tenn., 1985); Metcalf, George R., From Little Rock to Boston: The History of School Desegregation (Westport, Conn., 1983); Weinberg, Meyer, A Chance to Learn: The History of Race and Education in the United States (Cambridge, Mass., 1977); Kluger, Richard, Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America's Struggle for Equality (New York, 1976); Gerber, David A., “Education, Expediency, and Ideology: Race and Politics in the Desegregation of Ohio Public Schools in the Late Nineteenth Century,” Journal of Ethnic Studies 1 (Fall 1973): 1–31; Pieroth, , “With All Deliberate Caution,” 50–61; Morgan Kousser, J., “Making Separate Equal: Integration of Black and White School Funds in Kentucky,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 10 (Winter 1980): 399–428; Caughey, John, To Kill a Child's Spirit: The Tragedy of School Segregation in Los Angeles (Itasca, Ill., 1973); Hornsby, Alton Jr., “The Freedmen's Bureau Schools in Texas, 1864–1870,” Southwestern Historical Quarterly 76 (Apr. 1973): 397–417. Raymond Wolters, The Burden of Brown: Thirty Years of School Desegregation (Knoxville, Tenn., 1984), deals with segregation, but fits better within one of the possible postrevisionist camps described later than in a discussion of revisionism.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ Aickin Rothschild, Mary, “The Volunteers and the Freedom Schools: Education for Social Change in Mississippi,” History of Education Quarterly 22 (Winter 1982): 401–20; Abney, Everett E., “A Comparison of the Status of Florida's Black Public School Principals, 1965–66/1975–76,” Journal of Negro Education 49 (Fall 1980): 398–406; Howie, Donald L. W., “The Image of Black People in Brown v. Board of Education,” Journal of Black Studies 3 (Mar. 1973): 371–84; Franklin, Vincent P., “Persistence of School Segregation in the Urban North,” Journal of Ethnic Studies 1 (Winter 1974): 51–68.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ State studies include Mabee, Black Education in New York State; Russell, Lester F., Black Baptist Secondary Schools in Virginia, 1887–1957: A Study in Black History (Metuchen, N.J., 1981); Scott, John I. E., The Education of Black People in Florida (Philadelphia, 1974); Carper, James C., “The Popular Ideology of Segregated Schooling: Attitudes toward the Education of Blacks in Kansas, 1854–1900,” Kansas History 1 (Winter 1978): 254–65. Among urban studies, see Homel, Down from Equality; Franklin, Education of Black Philadelphia; Mohraz, , Separate Problem; June O. Patton, “The Black Community of Augusta and the Struggle for Ware High School, 1880–1899,” in New Perspectives, ed. Franklin and Anderson, 45–59.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Interracialism is central to Jacqueline Jones, Soldiers of Light and Love; Richardson, , Christian Reconstruction; McPherson, , Abolitionist Legacy; Rothschild, , “The Volunteers and the Freedom Schools”; Howe, Florence, “Mississippi's Freedom Schools,” Harvard Educational Review 35 (Spring 1965): 141–60. More critical studies include Butchart, Northern Schools, Southern Blacks, and Reconstruction; Harlan, , Booker T. Washington; Wolters, , The New Negro on Campus; Perkins, , “Quaker Beneficence and Black Control.” See note 45 for studies of segregation and desegregation.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Homel, , Down from Equality Weinberg, A Chance to Learn; Spivey, , Schooling for the New Slavery; Troen, , The Public and the Schools, 91–98; Fuller, Edmund, Prudence Crandall: An Incident of Racism in Nineteenth-Century Connecticut (Middletown, Conn., 1971), among others.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Wilkerson, , “Ghetto School Struggles,” 145; see also Butchart, , Northern Schools, Southern Blacks, and Reconstruction Wilson, , “Education as a Vehicle of Racial Control”; Fleming, John E., The Lengthening Shadow of Slavery; and citations to Anderson in notes 42 and 43.Google Scholar

⁵¹ Mohraz, , Separate Problem and studies cited in note 36.Google Scholar

⁵² Moss, , The American Negro Academy Franklin, , Education of Black Philadelphia; Webber, , Deep like the Rivers; Mabee, , Black Education in New York State; Sherer, , Subordination or Liberation?; Cozart, , A Venture of Faith. Google Scholar

⁵³ Mabee, , Black Education in New York State.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ Butchart, Ronald E., “Understanding the Retreat from Integration and Affirmative Action: Implications of Some Historical Parallels,” Peabody Journal of Education 57 (Oct. 1979), 1–9, sketches, tentatively, an interpretation of this period.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ Wilkerson, , “Ghetto School Struggles,” 146.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ Examples of the genre include Elizabeth Jacoway, Yankee Missionaries in the South: The Penn School Experiment (Baton Rouge, La., 1980): Jacqueline Jones, Soldiers of Light and Love; McPherson, , Struggle for Equality; McPherson, , Abolitionist Legacy; Foner and Pacheco, Three Who Dared; Homel, , Down from Equality; and Richardson, , Christian Reconstruction. Google Scholar

⁵⁷ Authors loosely associated with this tendency include Franklin, Education of Black Philadelphia; Webber, , Deep like the Rivers; Blassingame, , The Slave Community; Blassingame, , Black New Orleans, 1860–1880; Mohraz, , Separate Problem; and Wolters, , New Man on Campus. Google Scholar

⁵⁸ Among others, see Aptheker, “Negro College Students in the 1920s,” Science and Society 33 (Spring 1969): 150–67; Aptheker, , “Literacy, the Negro, and World War II,” Journal of Negro Education 15 (Fall 1946): 595–602; Anderson, all sources cited in notes 42 and 43; Butchart, , Northern Schools, Southern Blacks, and Reconstruction; Wilkerson, , “Ghetto School Struggles in Historical Perspective,” Science and Society, 33 (1969), 130–49; and, less successfully, Spivey, Schooling for the New Slavery. Google Scholar

⁵⁹ This tendency is still embryonic, but can be detected in such general work as Nicholas Lemann, “The Origins of the Underclass,” Atlantic Monthly 257 (June 1986): 31–55, and 258 (July 1986): 54–68; and more specific studies such as Wolters, Burden of Brown; and Sowell, Thomas, Education: Assumptions versus History: Collected Papers (Stanford, Calif., 1986).Google Scholar