Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-m6dg7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-19T17:35:58.534Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Beyond Diversity: Women, Scarification, and Yoruba Identity

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 May 2014

Olatunji Ojo
Olatunji Ojo*
Affiliation:
Brock University
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

On 18 March 1898 Okolu, an Ijesa man, accused Otunba of Italemo ward, Ondo of seizing and enslaving his sister Osun and his niece. Both mother and daughter, enslaved by the Ikale in 1894, had fled from their master in 1895, but as they headed toward Ilesa, the accused seized them. Osun claimed the accused forced her to become his wife, “hoe a farm,” and marked her daughter's face with one deep, bold line on each cheek. Otunba denied the slavery charge, claiming he only “rescued [Osun] from Soba who was taking her away [and] took her for wife.” Itoyimaki, a defense witness, supported the claim that Osun was not Otunba's slave. In his decision, Albert Erharhdt, the presiding British Commissioner, freed the captives and ordered the accused to pay a fine of two pounds. In addition to integrating Osun through marriage, the mark conferred on her daughter a standard feature of Ondo identity. Although this case came up late in the nineteenth century, it represents a trend in precolonial Yorubaland whereby marriages and esthetics served the purpose of ethnic incorporation.

Studies on the roots of African ethnic identity consciousness have concentrated mostly on the activities of outsiders, usually Euro-American Christian missions, repatriated ex-slaves, and Muslims, whose ideas of nations as geocultural entities were applied to various African groups during the era of the slave trade and, more intensely, under colonialism. For instance, prior to the late nineteenth century, the people now called Yoruba were divided into multiple opposing ethnicities. Ethnic wars displaced millions of people, including about a million Yoruba-speakers deported as slaves to the Americas, Sierra Leone, and the central Sudan, mostly between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries.

Type
Research Article
Information
History in Africa , Volume 35 , January 2008 , pp. 347 - 374
Copyright
Copyright © African Studies Association 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Albert Erhardt, journal, 18 and 22 March 1898, Ondo Div. 8/1, Nigeria National Archives, Ibadan (NAI).

2 See Mann, Kristin and Bay, Edna, eds., Rethinking the African Diaspora: the Making of a Black Atlantic World in the Bight of Benin and Brazil (London, 2001)Google Scholar; Heywood, Linda, ed., Central Africans and Cultural Transformations in the American Diaspora (Cambridge, 2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Falola, Toyin and Childs, Matt D., eds., The Yoruba Diaspora in the Atlantic World (Bloomington, 2004)Google Scholar; Baba'a, Ahmad, Mi'raj al-Su'ud: Replies on Slavery, annotated and translated by Hunwick, John and Karrak, Fatima (Rabat, 2000)Google Scholar; Vail, Leroy, ed., The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa (Berkeley, 1989)Google Scholar; Spear, Thomas and Waller, Richard, eds., Being Maasai: Ethnicity and Identity in East Africa (Oxford, 1993)Google Scholar; Ambler, Charles, Kenyan Communities in the Age of Imperialism: the Central Region in the Late Nineteenth Century (New Haven, 1988)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Bravman, Bill, Making Ethnic Ways: Communities and Their Transformations in Taita, Kenya, 1800-1950 (Portsmouth, NH., 1998)Google Scholar.

3 See Koelle, S. W., Polyglotta Africana, or a Comparative Vocabulary of Nearly Three Hundred Words and Phrases (London, 1854), 6Google Scholar; Peel, John D. Y., “The Cultural Work of Yoruba Ethnogenesis” in Tonkin, Elizabeth, McDonald, Maryon, and Chapman, Malcolm, eds., History and Ethnicity (London, 1989), 198–215Google Scholar; Law, Robin, “Ethnicity and the Slave Trade: “Lucumi” and “Nago” as Ethnonyms in West Africa,” HA 24(1997), 205–19Google Scholar; and idem., “Yoruba Liberated Slaves Who Returned to West Africa” in Yoruba Diaspora, 349-65.

4 Peel, J.D.Y., Religious Encounter and the Making of the Yoruba (Bloomington, 2000)Google Scholar.

5 For a related thesis see Northrup, David, “Becoming African: Identity Formation among Liberated Slaves in Nineteenth-Century Sierra Leone,” Slavery and Abolition 27(2006), 1–21CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6 See Roper, Edward, “What I Saw in Africa: Sketches of Missionary Life in the Yoruba Country, Part II,” Church Missionary Gleaner 3(1876), 35–38Google Scholar; British Parliamentary Papers (hereafter PP) C5144, encl. 1 in no. 8, Samuel Rowe to Derby, 18 May 1888; Johnson, Samuel, The History of the Yorubas from the Earliest to the Beginning of the British Protectorate (Lagos, 1921 [1976]), 178–283Google Scholar; Biobaku, Saburi, The Egba and Their Neighbours, 1842-1872 (London, 1957)Google Scholar; Awe, Bolanle, “The Rise of Ibadan as a Yoruba Power 1851-1893”, DPhil, Oxford University, 1964Google Scholar; Ajayi, J. F. Ade and Smith, Robert, Yoruba Warfare in the Nineteenth Century (London, 1964)Google Scholar; Morton-Williams, Peter, “The Oyo Yoruba and the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1670-1830,” Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria 3(1964), 24–45Google Scholar; Hopkins, Anthony G., “Economic Imperialism in West Africa: Lagos, 1880-1892,” Economic History Review 21(1968), 580–606Google Scholar; Akintoye, Stephen A., Revolution and Power Politics in Yorubaland, 1840-1893: Ibadan Expansion and the Rise of Ekitiparapo (London, 1971)Google Scholar; Oroge, Emmanuel A., “The Institution of Slavery in Yorubaland with Particular Reference to the Nineteenth Century” (PhD., Birmingham, 1971)Google Scholar; Law, Robin, The Oyo Empire c.1600—c. 1836: a West African Imperialism in the Era of the Atlantic Slave Trade (Oxford, 1977), 245–302Google Scholar; Shields, Francine, “Palm Oil and Power: Women in an Era of Economic and Social Transition in Nineteenth Century Yorubaland (South-Western Nigeria.” (PhD., Stirling, 1997)Google Scholar; Akinjogbin, Idowu A., ed., War and Peace in Yorubaland 1793-1893 (Ibadan, 1998)Google Scholar; and Mann, Kristin, Slavery and the Birth of an African City: Lagos, 1760-1900 (Bloomington, 2007)Google Scholar.

7 Oguntomisin, Gabriel, “Political Change and Adaptation in Yorubaland in the Nineteenth Century,” Canadian Journal of African Studies 15(1981), 223–37Google Scholar. Also see J. F. A. Ajayi, “Nineteenth Century Wars and Yoruba Ethnicity;” Isola Olomola, “Demographic Effects of the Nineteenth Century Yoruba Wars;” Gabriel Oguntomisin and Toyin Falola, “Refugees in Nineteenth Century Yorubaland;” and Oladeji, Niyi, “Language in Ethnic Rivalries: an Analysis of Ethnocentric Use of Yoruba in Nineteenth Century Yorubaland” all in War and Peace, 9-19, 371-79, 381-98, 451–60Google Scholar.

8 Richard, and Lander, John, Journal of an Expedition to Explore the Course and Termination of the Niger, (2 vols.: New York, 1832), 1:181Google Scholar; Church Missionary Society Archive [hereafter CMS], CA2/049b, David Hinderer to Henry Venn, 26 October 1855; National Archives of United Kingdom (hereafter NAUK), FO84/1061, Benjamin Campbell to Clarendon, 27 and 28 March 1858; Burton, Richard, Abeokuta and the Camaroos Mountains: An Exploration (2 vols.: London, 1863), 1:81–82Google Scholar; NAUK, CO 147/133, “Evidence of J. P. L. Davies” in Denton to Chamberlain, 4 June 1898; CMS, G3/A2/0/191, “Notices of the Villages;” Talbot, P. Amaury, The Peoples of Southern Nigeria (2 vols.: Oxford, 1926), 1:124Google Scholar; NAI, CSO 26/29939, R. L. V. Wilkes, “Intelligence Report on the Central Awori Group in the Ikeja and Badagry District of the Colony;” Barnes, Sandra T., Patrons and Power: Creating a Political Community in Metropolitan Lagos (Bloomington, 1986), 23, 27–36Google Scholar; and Smith, Robert, ed., Memoirs of Giambattista Scala: Consul of His Italian Majesty in Lagos in Guinea, 1862 (Oxford, 2000), 65Google Scholar.

9 CMS, CA2/049b, Hinderer to Henry Venn, 26 October 1855; NAUK, FO 84/976, Campbell to Clarendon, 7 December 1855; and Johnson, , History, 324, 381Google Scholar.

10 CMS, CA2/056, “Report of James Johnson, August 1877” and Akinyele, I.A., Iwe Itan Ibadan ati die Ninu Awon Ilu Agbegbe re bi Iwo, Osogbo, Ikirun (4th ed.: Ibadan, 1980), 209Google Scholar.

11 Robertson, George, Notes on Africa (London, 1819), 290–91Google Scholar; Law, Robin, “Trade and Politics Behind the Slave Coast: the Lagoon Traffic and the Rise of Lagos, 1500-1800,” JAH 24 (1983), 343–48CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mann, Slavery; and O'Hear, Ann, “Ilorin as a Slaving and Slave-Trading Emirate” in Lovejoy, Paul E., ed., Slavery on the Frontiers of Islam (Princeton, 2004), 55–68Google Scholar.

12 See Johnson, History and Akinyele, Iwe Itan Ibadan.

13 Samuel Crowther, journal, 3 March 1851. Cf. Church Missionary Record 12(1852), 277Google Scholar; PP, 1852, vol. lxiv (221), Henry Townsend to John Beecroft, 20 March 1851; Bowen, Thomas J., Adventures and Missionary Labours in Several Countries in the Interior of Africa Front 1849 to 1856 (London, 1968 [1857]), 120Google Scholar; and Johnson, , History, 354Google Scholar.

14 See “Description of a Slave [Joseph Wright of Aku]” in Beecham, John, Ashantee and the Gold Coast (London, 1841), 349–58Google Scholar; Irving, Edward, “The Ijebu Country,” Church Missionary Intelligencer 7(1856), 69Google Scholar; Tucker, Sarah, Abbeokuta or Sunrise within the Tropics (London, 1853), 17Google Scholar; CMS, CA2/075, Daniel Olubi, journal for 1870; and Johnson, , History, 331-54, 377–82Google Scholar. Soldiers and the elderly were also victimized as a form of breaking the political cohesion of a community and by that prevent future resistance. In Johnson's words “[t]he distress caused [by warfare]… cannot be described. Aged people who could not be carried were left to perish.” See Johnson, , History, 200-201, 205Google Scholar.

15 Ibid., 450-51.

16 May, Daniel, “Journey in the Yoruba and Nupe Countries in 1858,” Journal of Royal Geographical Society 30(1860), 213CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

17 “The Yoruba Mission,” CMI 6(1855), 250Google Scholar; also see Awe, Bolanwe, “Iyalode Efunsetan Aniwura” in Awe, , ed., Nigerian Women in Historical Perspective (Ibadan, 1992), 57–71Google Scholar; Afolayan, Funso, “Women and Warfare in Yorubaland During the Nineteenth Century” in Falola, Toyin and Law, Robin, eds., Warfare and Diplomacy in Precolonial Nigeria: Essays in Honour of Robert Smith (Madison, 1992), 78–86Google Scholar; Ilesanmi, T. M. “The Yoruba Worldview on Women and Warfare” in Warfare and Diplomacy, 87–92Google Scholar; and Awe, Bolanle and Olutoye, Omotayo, “Women and Warfare in Nineteenth Yorubaland: an Introduction” in War and Peace, 121–30Google Scholar.

18 Barnes, , “Ritual, Power, and Outside Knowledge,” Journal of Religion in Africa 20(1990), 248–68Google Scholar. On Buganda see Musisi, Nakayinke, “Women, “Elite Polygyny,” and Buganda State Formation,” Signs 16(1991), 757–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

19 Ellis, Alfred B., The Yoruba-Speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast of West Africa: Their Religion, Manners, Customs, Laws, Language (London, 1894), 187Google Scholar.

20 Clapperton, journal, 6 February 1826. Cf. Lockhart, James B. and Lovejoy, Paul E., eds., Hugh Clapperton into the Interior of Africa: Records of the Second Expedition, 1825-1827 (Leiden, 2005)Google Scholar; and Lander, , Records of Captain Clapperton's Last Expedition to Africa (2 vols.: London, 1830), 2:224–26Google Scholar.

21 Losi, , History of Lagos, 22, 33Google Scholar.

22 See Babamuboni, Isaac E., Itan Ewi, Elekole ati Ajero, (Ibadan, n.d.)Google Scholar.

23 Crowther to William Jowett, CMS Secretary, Fourah Bay, 22 February 1837, “Detailing the Circumstances Connected with His Being Sold as a Slave,” Church Missionary Record (1837), 217–23Google Scholar; and Crowther, , “Report of Visit to Ketu in 1853,” CMI 4(1853), 243–52Google Scholar.

24 Awe, /Olutoye, , “Women and Warfare,” 127Google Scholar.

25 Johnson, , History, 250Google Scholar.

26 Oroge, “Institution of Slavery;” Barber, Karin, “Money, Self Realization and the Person in Yoruba Texts” in Guyer, Jane, ed., Money Matters: Instability, Values and Social Payments in the Modern History of West African Communities (Portsmouth, NH., 1995), 205–24Google Scholar; and Guyer, Jane, “Wealth in People, Wealth in Things: Introduction,” JAH 36(1995), 83–90CrossRefGoogle Scholar; also see Roper, , “What I Saw in Africa,” 38Google Scholar; Wood, James. B., “On the Inhabitants of Lagos: Their Character, Pursuits, and Languages,” CMI 33(1881), 685Google Scholar; and Gollmer, Charles H., Charles Andrew Gollmer: His Life and Missionary Labours in West Africa (London, 1889), 119–20Google Scholar.

27 Clapperton, journal, 7 February 1826 and Lander, , Records of Clapperton, 1:106, 2:196–97Google Scholar.

28 Delaney, Martin R. and Campbell, , Search for a Place: Black Separatism and Africa, 1860 (Ann Arbor, 1969), 59, 191Google Scholar; Pinnock, , The Romance of Missions in Nigeria (Richmond, 1917), 63–64Google Scholar; and NAI, CMS (Y) 1/7/10, Harding to Friends, 30 September 1892,

29 Stone, , In Afric's Forest and Jungle or Six Years among the Yorubans (New York, 1899)Google Scholar.

30 CMS, CA2/078, Phillips, journal, 26 August 1878 and NAI, Ondo Div 8/1, Hunt to Resident, 13 January 1915.

31 NAI, CMS (Y) 1/7/5, “Account of visit to Kiriji camp in March 1885” in Wood to Lang, 19 August 1885.

32 Ward, Edward, Marriage among the Yoruba (Washington, 1937), 28–40Google Scholar.

33 Ulsheimer, , “Voyage of 1603-4” in Jones, Adam, ed., German Sources for West African History, 1599-1669 (Wiesbaden, 1983), 24Google Scholar.

34 Johnson, , History, 200-201, 205Google Scholar.

35 Eltis, David and Richardson, David, “West Africa and the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade: New Evidence of Long-Run Trends,” Slavery and Abolition 18(1997), 16–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Robertson, Claire and Klein, Martin, eds., Women and Slavery in Africa (Portsmouth, NH., 1987)Google Scholar; and Lovejoy, , “Internal Markets or an Atlantic-Sahara Divide? How Women Fit into the Slave Trade of West Africa” in Campbell, Gwyn, Miers, Suzanne, and Miller, Joseph C. eds., Women and Slavery, 1: Africa, the Western Indian Ocean Islands and the Medieval North Atlantic (Athens, OH., 2007), 259–80Google Scholar.

36 See “Endeavours to Carry the Gospel into the Interior of Africa,” CMG 3(1843), 126Google Scholar; “Commencement of Missionary Operations at Abbeokouta” and “Meeting of the Rev. Samuel Crowther with his Mother,” CMG 7(1847), 17-18, 63–65Google Scholar; Irving, “Ijebu Country;” idem., “The Sufferings and Deliverance of James Gerber, a Twice-Liberated African” and idem., “How Thomas King Became a Slave,” CMG 10(1850), 20-23,138-41; Tucker, , Abbeokuta, 220–27Google Scholar; CMR 23(1852): 276–86Google Scholar; Barber, Mary, Oshieleor Village Life in the Yoruba Country (London, 1857), 45-55, 125–36Google Scholar, and Hinderer, , Seventeen Years, 143-47, 292–93Google Scholar.

37 Johnson, , History, 324Google Scholar.

38 NAI, Phillips 1/1/3, Phillips to Wood, 9 January 1890,

39 Ward, , Marriage among the Yoruba, 15, 27Google Scholar; and NAI, CSO 26/11799, vol. iv, R. Foulke-Roberts (DO Officer, Ondo) cited in Secretary Southern Provinces to G. C. Whiteley, 17 March 1937.

40 Hopkins, , “A Report on the Yoruba, 1910,” JHSN 5(1969), 81–82Google Scholar.

41 Also see Peel, , Ijesha and Nigerians: The Incorporation of a Yoruba Kingdom 1890s-1970s (Cambridge, 1983)Google Scholar.

42 NAI, Ekiti Div 4/4, Civil Record Book, 14 July 1903.

43 NAI, CMS (Y) 3/1/2, “Minutes of Abeokuta Clerical Conference, 25 September 1877.”

44 Lovejoy, , “Concubinage in the Sokoto Caliphate (1804–1903),” Slavery and Abolition 11(1990), 159–89CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

45 Barber, , Oshielle, 192–93Google Scholar; CMS, CA2/069, George Meakin, journal, 20 April 1859; CMS, CA2/049, Hinderer, journal, 27 April 1859; NAI, CMS (Y) 3/1/2, “Abeokuta Clerical Conference;” NAI, Phillips 1/3/3, journal, 26 August and 20 November 1878; Johnson, , History, 54-55, 459, 490, 492Google Scholar; Hopkins, , “Report on the Yoruba,” 81–82Google Scholar; Oroge “Institution of Slavery;” Mann, Slavery; Byfield, Judith, “Women, Marriage, Divorce and the Emerging Colonial State in Abeokuta (Nigeria), 1892-1904,” Canadian Journal of African Studies 30(1996), 32–51Google Scholar; Shields, “Palm Oil and Power;” and Ojo, “Slavery, Pawnship and Marriage in Yorubaland, 1870-1900” in Engendering the Atlantic, forthcoming.

46 IUP, PP, Colonies Series, vol. 63, inclosure in no. 17, S. B. Williams, “Report of Egba Mercantile Committee, 17-18 September 1855.”

47 Johnson, , History, 226, 236, 324-26, 638Google Scholar.

48 Ibid., 325 and Francis C. Fuller, “Report on the Interior” in Lagos Annual Report, 1899.

49 Allman, Jean, “Adultery and the State in Asante: Reflections on Gender, Class and Power from 1800 to 1950” in Hunwick, John and Lawler, Nancy, eds., The Cloth of Many Colored Silks (Evanston, 1996), 30Google Scholar.

50 Hopkins, , “Report on the Yoruba,” 81–82Google Scholar. On the persistence of adultery see Caldwell, John C., Caldwell, Pat, and Orubuloye, Israel O., “The Family and Sexual Networking in Sub-Saharan Africa: Historical Regional Differences and Present Day Implications,” Population Studies 46(1992), 385–410CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

51 CMS, CA2/098/10, Young, journal, 27 June 1875; CMS, CA2/078/24, Phillips, journal, 23 November 1877; NAI, Phillips 1/1/3, Phillips to R. Lang, 13 January 1890; NAI, CMS (Y) 2/2/4, Phillips, , “A statement of the peculiar difficulties which impede the progress of the infant church at Ondo,” 14 February 1891Google Scholar; and NAI, CSO 26/4/30172, Bridges, A. F., “Intelligence Report on Ondo District, 1935,” 61Google Scholar. The proper word for “concubine” in this context is paramour, lover, or adulterer. An approved lover could sue a rival. See Fadase and Kinyokun vs. Fletcher in NAI, Phillips 3/11, Phillips, diary, 15 November–3 December 1901.

52 For an interesting discussion of how female slaves were used to incorporate male slaves and ensure their continued loyalty in the Western Sudan see Klein, Martin A., “Women in Slavery in the Western Sudan,” in Women and Slavery, 82–84Google Scholar.

53 PP, C4957, “Statement of the Modakeke, 28 November 1886.”

54 Lander, /Lander, , Journal, vol. 1Google Scholar.

55 Johnson, , History, 200-201, 205Google Scholar. In 1855, as Ijaye army headed for war in Sabe area, the women invoked Orisa to protect their soldiers. Cf. CMS, CA2/077, Charles Phillips, journal, 22 March 1855.

56 Millson, Alvan, “The Yoruba Country, West Africa,” Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society 13(1891), 577–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mabogunje, A. L., “Some Comments on Land Tenure in Egba Division, Western Nigeria,” Africa 31(1961), 258–69CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Sudarkasa, Niara, Where Women Work: a Study of Yoruba in the Market Place and in the Home (Ann Arbor, 1973), 31Google Scholar.

57 See Lander, , Records of Clapperton, 2:197Google Scholar.

58 Johnson, , History, 307Google Scholar.

59 See Lloyd, , Yoruba Land Law (London, 1962), 192Google Scholar. Tradition also forbids the Elejelu (king) of Ijelu-Ekiti from seeing a new baby. Interviews with Madams Comfort Ogunleye, Ijelu, 30 June 2001; Abigail Ajibade and Marian Iyanda, Omu-Ekiti 24 June 2001.

60 Barnes, “Ritual, Power, and Outside Knowledge.”

61 Johnson, , History, 158–59Google Scholar.

62 Interviews with Oba Babington-Ashaye, the Ologere of Ogere, 1 September 1981, and J. Odusanya, Ijebu-Igbo, 29 August 1981. Cf. Sofela, Babatunde, “Egba-Ijebu Relations during the Nineteenth Century” (M.A., University of Ibadan, 1982)Google Scholar.

63 Musisi, “Elite Polygyny” and Bay, Edna, Wives of the Leopard: Gender, Politics, and Culture in the Kingdom of Dahomey (Charlottesville, 1998)Google Scholar.

64 Johnson, , History, 60-67, 391Google Scholar and Babayemi, Solomon, Topics on Oyo History (Lagos, 1991), 97–108Google Scholar.

65 Interviews with Chief M. Oyapinda, Oluwo of Odo and J. O. Lamupejo, Odofin Ikija, 26 August 1981. Cf. Sofela, “Egba-Ijebu Relations.” Also see Barber, Karin, “Oríkì, Women and the Proliferation and Merging of Orisa,” Africa 60(1990), 313–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

66 See “The Emancipados and Their Fatherland,” CMI 6(December 1855), 276Google Scholar; McKenzie, Peter, Hail Orisha! a Phenomenology of a West African Religion in the Mid-Nineteenth Century (Leiden, 1997)Google Scholar; and Peel, , “Gender in Yoruba Religious Change,” Journal of Religion in Africa 32(2002), 136–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

67 On human sacrifice see Ojo, Olatunji, “Slavery and Human Sacrifice in Nineteenth Century Yorubaland: Ondo c.1870–1894,” JAH 46(2005), 379–404CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

68 Barber, , Oshiele, 55, 125–36Google Scholar and CMS, CA2/043, Gollmer, journal, 15 September 1856.

69 CMS, CA2/097, Thomas B. Wright, journal, 1 May 1867.

70 Burton, , Abbeokuta, 104–06Google Scholar

71 Johnson, , History, 74Google Scholar.

72 On Yoruba marks see Lander, , Records, 1:283-84, 2:215–17Google Scholar; Lloyd, Peter C., “Osifekunde of Ijebu” in Curtin, Philip D., ed., Africa Remembered: Narratives by West Africans from the Era of the Slave Trade (Madison, 1967), 255–58Google Scholar; Baikie, William B., Narrative of an Exploring Voyage up the Rivers Kwora and Binue Commonly Known as the Niger and Tsadda in 1854 (London, 1966 [1856]), 272Google Scholar; Burton, , Abeokuta, 104–06Google Scholar; Roper, , “What I Saw in Africa,” 3436Google Scholar; Stone, , Afric's Forest, 30–31Google Scholar; Macfie, J. W. Scott, “A Yoruba Tattooer,” Man 67/68(1913), 121–22CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Johnson, , History, 104–09Google Scholar; Oroge, , “Institution of Slavery,” 116–23Google Scholar; Adepegba, Cornelius “A Survey of Nigerian Body Markings and their Relationship to other Nigerian Arts” (PhD, Indiana University, 1976), 82-89, 111–17 and plates xx-xxvGoogle Scholar; Faleti, Adebayo, “Yoruba Facial Marks,” Gangan (1977), 22–27Google Scholar; Drewal, Henry, “Art or Accident; Yoruba Body Artists and their Deity Ogun” in Barnes, Sandra, ed., Africa's Ogun: Old World and New (Bloomington, 1997), 235–60Google Scholar; Okediji, Moyo, “Yoruba Facialographical Art and Oyo Expansionism” in War and Peace, 487–96Google Scholar; and Ayeni, Olubimpe, “Observations on the Medical and Social Aspects of Scarification in Sub-Saharan Africa,” 2004, www.med.uottawa.ca/medweb/hetenyi/ayeni.htmGoogle Scholar

73 Lander, , Records 2:215Google Scholar and Lloyd, , “Osifekunde of Ijebu,” 255–56Google Scholar.

74 Johnson, , History, 108Google Scholar and Fabunmi, Michael A., Ife: The Genesis of Yoruba Race (Lagos), 114–17Google Scholar.

75 NAI, Phillips 3/5, “Name of Baptismal Candidates, Ondo, 1892.”

76 Lovejoy, , “Scarification and the Loss of History in the African Diaspora,” paper presented at York University, Toronto, July 2005, 7, 14Google Scholar.

77 See Ogunmefun, Ade, Yoruba Legends (London, 1929), 2–3Google Scholar. Also Johnson, , History, 106nGoogle Scholar.

78 CMS, CA2/056, Johnson to Wright, 21 June 1878 and Asabia, David O. and Adegbesan, J.O., Idoani Past and Present: the Story of One Yoruba Kingdom (Ibadan, 1970), 5–6Google Scholar.

79 Elias, Teslim O., Nigerian Land Law (4th ed.: London, 1971), 139Google Scholar; and Oloyede, E. O., “The Laws Relating to Children and Young Persons under the Customary and Statutory Laws of Nigeria” PhD., London, 1970), 209–10Google Scholar. Cf. Oroge, , “Institution of Slavery,” 135Google Scholar.

80 Stone, , Afric's Forest, 30–31Google Scholar. Also see Roper, , “What I Saw in Africa,” 3436Google Scholar.

81 Johnson, , History, 377Google Scholar. Also see Lander, , Records, 1:283-84, 2:217Google Scholar.

82 Johnson, , History, 18, 107–09Google Scholar.

83 Adepegba, , “Yoruba Art and Art History” in Ogunremi, Deji and Adediran, Biodun, eds., Culture and Society in Yorbaland (Ibadan, 1998), 159–61Google Scholar.

84 Akinjogbin, I.A. and Ayandele, Emmanuel A., “Yorubaland up to 1800” in Ikime, Obaro, ed., Groundwork of Nigeria History (Ibadan, 1980), 121–43Google Scholar.

85 PP, C4957, Moloney to Rowe, 12 May 1881, encl. in Rowe to Kimberley, 2 July 1881,

86 Koelle, , Polyglotta Africana, 6Google Scholar.

87 Irving, , “Ijebu Country,” 71–72Google Scholar; Ajisafe, , History, 61–62Google Scholar, and Ayantuga, Olufemi O., “Ijebu and Its Neighbours” (PhD., London, 1963), 31Google Scholar.

88 Johnson, , History, 107Google Scholar. These marks probably came with Mandingo and Kemberi immigrants.

89 Lloyd, , “Osifekunde,” 257Google Scholar; and Fabunmi, , Ife, 114–17Google Scholar

90 Lovejoy, , “Scarification and Loss of History” and Patterson, Orlando, Slavery and Social Death: a Comparative Study (Cambridge, 1982)Google Scholar.

91 Smith, H. F. C., Last, D. M., and Gubio, Gambo, “Ali Eisami Gazirmabe of Bornu” in Africa Remembered, 199–216Google Scholar; and Crowther to Jowett.