Major changes to the global environment and their impact upon statistical requirements are presented. The need for extensive yet accurate datasets is stressed and the difficulties of achieving appropriate sampling strategies are described. Examples are presented of environmental studies in use in diverse field such as global warming, sustainability, agroforestry and intercropping, and local community studies. The history of the use of environmental statistics is highlighted as is the need for modern methods to handle large, multivariate datasets likely to be subject to both spatial and temporal variability.

The area of salt-affected land is increasing because of irrigation practices and changed land use. Breeding crops that tolerate soil salinity and yield well in salt-affected soils, and employing crop management practices to counter salinity, have been proposed to maintain crop productivity. Here, it is argued that neither breeding nor management will adequately counter the effects of salinity. Although both offer the potential to maintain yields for a brief period, it is inevitable that salinity will continue to increase and crop productivity will decline. Only the establishment of a perennial vegetation that will maintain evapotranspiration at high levels all year round on both salt-affected land and recharge areas will halt the increase in salinization.

Mejorar la producción en los suelos afectados por la sal

A simple hand-held reflectometer was used to estimate the shoot dry matter of pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum), groundnut (Arachis hypogaea), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), weeds and grass swards non-destructively. While the instrument was able to predict shoot dry matter well for single, standing millet and cowpea plants and proved useful for a growth analysis of millet, its reliability was unsatisfactory for groundnut. For millet, the slope of two separate regressions between the difference of reflectance ratios and shoot dry matter, taken 10 days apart, was almost identical. This suggests a possible simplification in future crop growth models. The usefulness of the instrument for estimating dry matter in natural species mixtures such as weeds and grasses depended on the homogeneity of the mixture and the uniformity of their physiological state.

Medición de la biomasa utilizando la reflexión

The limited fossil fuel reserve available for manufacturing fertilizer nitrogen and the adverse effects of continued use of high fertilizer nitrogen doses on the environment call for a more efficient use of indigenous soil nitrogen. This paper presents several ways of enhancing soil nitrogen use in wetland rice. These involve utilizing nitrogen present in the deeper soil layers, increasing soil nitrogen mineralization rate, decreasing the loss of mineralized nitrogen from the rooting zone, and adjusting rice variety, soil flooding, and transplanting time. To sustain nitrogen fertility and productivity of ricelands, however, the original soil nitrogen levels must be maintained through natural resources like recycled crop residues and enhanced biological N2 fixation. Various ways of stimulating biological nitrogen fixation by both indigenous and exogenous agents are discussed. Since enhancement of soil nitrogen use in rice and maintenance of the original nitrogen level in soil by stimulating biological nitrogen fixation have not been examined together in the field, elaborate field experiments should be conducted to assess the impacts of such combined practices on long-term soil nitrogen fertility and productivity.

This paper describes the construction, usefulness and randomization of several designs for field experiments in which there is more than one set of blocks, namely: (a) row-and-column designs, in which there are two crossing sets of blocks, treatments being applied to the plots formed by their intersections; (b) row-and-column designs in which factors are applied to complete rows or complete columns, that is, criss-cross (or strip-plot) designs; and (c) split-plot designs, in which the plots in a study of one factor are used as blocks in the study of another. All are examples of a wider class of designs, with many ramifications, said to have ‘simple block structure’. It is suggested here that some of the assumptions underlying row-and-column designs are questionable. Some alternative approaches are indicated.

Ideally each block of an experiment should be made up in the same way with respect to treatments, that is, the design should be ‘orthogonal’. In practice that can be difficult to achieve, especially if the blocks have been chosen to fit the fertility pattern of the field. Sometimes it is impossible, in which case each block will have to contain its own selection of treatments. A number of simple and useful possibilities exist.

Whatever non-orthogonal design is chosen some of the contrasts of interest (perhaps all of them) will be evaluated less efficiently, but that can be compensated by the smaller error mean-square given by a better blocking system. Also, where blocks do differ in their content, comparing their means will provide additional information about treatment effects. Sometimes the information may be worth the trouble of recovery.

Special attention is given in this paper to total balance (including balanced incomplete block designs), supplemented balance, square and rectangular lattices and alpha-designs. The reinforcement of a design is explained and the advantages considered.

Problemas de diseño en la experimentación con cultivos. III

Four components of the water budget for a growing season, namely storage, drainage, transpiration and direct evaporation from the soil surface, were estimated using a suite of techniques. The only data requirements were rainfall, neutron probe measurements of soil water content and microlysimeter measurements of evaporation from the soil. Data from four growing seasons at Kiboko, Kenya between 1990 and 1992 were used to provide examples of the estimations. Drainage was significant (about 10% of rainfall) in one season only; in the other seasons, total evaporation comprised at least 95% of the seasonal rainfall.

Drainage was determined using a relationship between unsaturated hydraulic conductivity and soil water content that was determined during the early part of the rainy season when water was penetrating to depth. This analysis made it possible to identify a critical water content at the base of the soil profile, above which there would be significant drainage. However, there are large errors associated with estimation of drainage if significant drainage occurs.

Estimates of direct evaporation from the soil surface were used as the basis of distinguishing transpiration from total evaporation. Microlysimetry was used to develop a model of evaporation from these sandy soils, which was based on the assumption that the evaporation from the soil surface following heavy rainfall is a unique function of time from rainfall, and little influenced by the presence of a sparse crop. This method showed that direct evaporation from the soil accounted for between 70 and 85% of total evaporation in seasons when total evaporation estimates ranged from 150 to 325 mm.

The dry matter yield, nutritive value and persistence of three legume species (Stylosanthes hamata Taub., S. capitata Vog. and Centrosema pascuorum Mart. ex. Benth.) cut at different frequencies during the growing season or only once at the end of the growing season were compared. The shorter cutting intervals enhanced regrowth, but very frequent cutting reduced total dry matter and seed yields. A defoliation interval of three to six weeks is recommended. Generally, S. hamata gave the best performance.

Efecto del deshoje en tres legumbres

Seeds of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) were coated with a range of vegetable oils before sowing, in an effort to provide a hydrophobic coating that would only dissolve or wash away in the presence of sufficient water to maintain continued seedling growth. Germination of oil-treated seeds was reduced by 20–50% and time to 50% emergence was increased by two to five days. Treating pesticide-coated seeds with vegetable oil further decreased germination and extended time to emergence. Oil treatment did not decrease water uptake or affect seed respiration. Degree of saturation and linoleic acid:oleic acid ratio were not correlated with the effects of the various oils. The decreased germination and delayed emergence associated with the oil treatment were probably due to physiological rather than physical factors.

Plants of rice (Oryza sativa)cultivar IR36 were grown under flooded and free-draining conditions at a constant air temperature of 28°C with an 11.5 h d−1 photoperiod in both a growth cabinet and a glasshouse. The nutrient solution within flooded pots was maintained at 20°, 24° or 28°C, or was not controlled. Rate of floral development was enhanced by warmer nutrient solution temperatures at the same air temperature; times to panicle emergence were reduced by an average of 17 d with increase in the nutrient solution temperature from 20° to 28°C. In comparable treatments, plants grown in the growth cabinet reached panicle emergence later than those grown in the glasshouse, possibly because mean air temperature was on average 0.8°C cooler in the growth cabinet. An independent model, derived from a previous investigation, provided a good prediction of the times from sowing to panicle emergence for plants grown in both the glasshouse and the growth cabinet when based on the mean of the temperatures of the nutrient solution and the air, showing that it is important to determine water/root temperature as well as air temperature when investigating the effect of environment on development of the rice plant.

The effects of phosphorus enrichment of Azolla inoculum and phosphorus fertilization during intercropping on the growth, nitrogen fixation and phosphorus content of Azolla caroliniana and the grain yield, straw yield and nitrogen uptake of rice were studied for four consecutive seasons. The phosphorus-enriched Azolla maintained a higher plant phosphorus content and produced a greater biomass and nitrogen yield than the unenriched Azolla. Application of phosphorus during intercropping significantly increased the dry weight, nitrogen yield and phosphorus content of both unenriched and phosphorus-enriched Azolla. The differences between the enriched and unenriched Azolla declined as increasing levels of phosphorus were applied during intercropping. The grain and straw yields and nitrogen uptake of rice were increased both by phosphorus-enrichment of Azolla inoculum and by phosphorus fertilization during intercropping.

La gestión de fósforos para la siembra simultánea del Azolla y el arroz

Field experiments were conducted for two years to evaluate the effects of combinations of saline irrigation (ECw 14.0 ds m-1) and nitrogen levels on the yield, seasonal water use and nitrogen use efficiencies of mustard. These showed that the use of saline water can boost the growth and yield of dryland mustard and that, within certain limits, a non-saline water supply can be substituted by applying nitrogen and saline water. It is suggested that fertilizer nitrogen rates should be adjusted in relation to the supply of water and its predicted salinity.

Irrigación salina y los efectos del nitrógeno en la mostaza sembrada en las tierras de secano

Spatial variability in soil parameters and plant growth in the Sahel are still poorly understood and may hamper the interpretation of experimental results. This paper examines whether or not soil amendments such as phosphorus and crop residues affect the variability of final dry matter production in pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum). Within- and between-plot variation in millet growth was studied in a three-year experiment with three levels of crop residues and four levels of phosphorus. The effects of different rates of application on within-plot variation in number of tillers, number of heads, maximum tiller height, and total above-ground dry matter of single mature millet plant stands (pockets) were calculated. Above-ground dry matter, estimated non-destructively using an equation derived from numbers of tillers and heads and from maximum plant height, gave good predictions of total dry matter for a range of genotypes across the 12 treatments. Crop residue and phosphorus application reduced the number of missing pockets, leading to a more uniform stand with fewer pockets which did not produce grain. With amendments, pockets were also taller and of more uniform height but a decrease in variability of total dry matter production only became evident after standardization of the data. The results show the need for a clear definition of ‘growth variability’ in millet and indicate that both chemical and non-chemical factors govern its expression in the Sahel.

Efectos de los residuos de las cosechas y del fósforo en la variabilidad del mijo

Linear covariance analysis of crop yield data using plot stand as the covariate is not satisfactory when the missing plants are eliminated before maturity. This is because the resulting relationship between yield and plot stand is non-linear. In this paper, a transformation of plot yield data to adjust for sub-optimal stands in circumstances involving interplant competition is examined. A biomathematical derivation and interpretation of the proposed model is provided. An experiment involving two varieties of maize (Zea mays) grown at three locations provided the data used to validate the model. Adjusted genotype mean yield values obtained using the proposed exponential transformation were in agreement with observed values.

Surveys and on-farm trials are frequently used to facilitate farmer participation in agricultural research. This paper reports on a less common method-farmer involvement in on-station trials. Thirty-nine farmers were invited to multipurpose-tree screening trials in Burundi. Three different methods were used to determine which species the farmers wanted to test on their own farms. Private interviews and voting by a show of hands in plenary sessions gave very similar results whereas focus group interviews produced different and contradictory results. Researchers also learned what criteria farmers used to evaluate trees and the reasons for their choices. A supplementary survey of farmers’ preferences for trees grown on their own farms confirmed the findings and more clearly defined their criteria. In this survey, farmers used a local board game, Bao, to rate tree species across criteria they considered important. Overall, the visit to the trials and follow-up survey proved to be a useful and cost-effective method for getting farmer input and applying it in the screening process.

La participación de los agricultores en la selección de especies de árboles

The effect of mixtures of cultivars on yield and risk distribution in four maize cultivars grown at four different population levels was studied in semi-arid environments in Ethiopia. Mixtures yielded between 2 and 29% more than the pure stands, but late maturing pure stands produced more biomass than mixtures. Mixtures of cultivars with similar flowering periods yielded 60% more than the pure stands in dry growing seasons, but only 30% more when there was more rain. Yield gain was associated mainly with varietal synchrony of anthesis and silking. Mixtures composed of cultivars with different flowering times were less at risk from yield loss in the case of end-of-season drought and yielded 100% more than their late flowering component in pure stand. But in long growing seasons, with an early dry spell, pure stands of the late cultivar outyielded the mixtures whereas pure stands of the early flowering cultivars yielded less than the mixtures, except in years with a serious end-of-season drought. The results indicate that it would be profitable to grow mixtures in semi-arid regions if cultivars with similar height and synchronized flowering time were grown at populations of between 65 000 and 90 000 plants ha−1.

The tea industry in Malawi is the oldest in Africa but in the past had always produced poor quality tea. A plant improvement programme was therefore started in 1956 at the Tea Research Stations in Mulanje. The improvement in made tea quality was assisted by an investigation into the biochemistry of tea fermentation. Early success was obtained with polyclonal seed varieties and the development of clones from field bushes. These were used in cross breeding to produce new progeny clones which are showing a steady improvement in quality and yield. The need for improved yield was recognised as the programme progressed and appropriate selection procedures adopted. Techniques for improved vegetative propagation for field planting, grafting ofseed bearer trees and composite plants were developed. Liaison with the tea industry has been good and all new plantings in southern Africa since about 1975 have been with improved material. The programme is continuing and future prospects are good.

Wheat was planted at different altitudes in the Ethiopian highlands. Increased altitude led to a lower neutral detergent fibre (NDF) content and a higher in vitro organic matter digestibility (IVOMD) of the leaf blades, leaf sheaths and stems. The varieties tested did not differ in NDF content, however, because of the improved NDF digestibility of all three straw fractions. The semi-dwarf varieties had a higher IVOMD than the standard tall wheats. The local durum wheat variety showed a much higher sodium content and a more favourable Na:K ratio. Undersowing with an equal mixture of Trifolium ruepellianum (Fres.) and Trifolium steudneri (Schwf.) led to a small reduction in straw yield but increased the crude protein content of the crop residues from 2.3 to 7.1% and the IVOMD from 44 to 51% as compared to the sole wheat stand.

Studies on the effect of climatic factors such as rainfall, relative humidity, temperature, sunshine hours, pan evaporation, evapotranspiration, solar radiation, vapour pressure and wind velocity on the button shedding, premature nut fall, and final nut yield of coconut, and crop-weather models developed to predict nut yield, are reviewed. The type of data and statistical analyses techniques used and the areas of research poorly addressed under the different topics are highlighted.

Efectos de las condiciones climáticas y el tiempo en el coco

Chickpea yields in Israel are usually considerably lower than wheat yields under comparable conditions. This study aimed to examine the possible yield limiting factors in chickpeas. Increasing the availability of nitrogen during seed development by a pre-sowing application of nitrate or by nitrogen top dressing at the onset of flowering led to an increase in the percentage of nitrogen in the straw but had no significant effect on seed yield. Growth analysis of chickpeas and wheat grown in two adjacent field experiments revealed that during the fruiting period these crops accumulated similar amounts of dry matter. However, the proportion of total wheat dry matter accumulated in the wheat grains was twice the proportion of total chickpea dry matter accumulated in the chickpea seeds. It was concluded that the main intrinisic factor limiting the seed yield of chickpeas is the continuation of vegetative growth during the period of seed development, which reduces the amount of assimilate allocated to the seeds.

Los factores restrictivos del rendimiento en el garbanzo