Thea purpose of science funding policy is to pave the way into new territory without knowing the final outcome to be expected. This needs the input of a wide range of scientific advice in response to well defined questions. There must be a serious intention to listen and if possible act on such advice.

Comparison of the molecular structure of genetic material from living species reveals evolutionary relationships, and estimates of dates when pairs of species last shared a common ancestor. The resulting evolutionary trees, which are accumulating rapidly in the literature to complement those trees produced from fossil records, can be used to reveal hitherto unsuspected patterns in the evolutionary record. In particular, the trees can be analysed to show when rates of speciation and extinction were abnormally high or low. Together with estimates of ancestral character states and environments, these data throw new light on the reasons for speciation and extinction. This article describes how statistical methods are being developed and used to analyse molecular phylogenies.

For various reasons, the canon of literary works to be read in school has been criticized in recent years. The status of the canon, both as a concept with hierarchical connotations and as a particular set of texts, has been affected by developments in literary scholarship as well as by political views and new educational goals. However, teaching literature without the regulative idea of a canon is not very satisfactory. If we wish to select a limited number of literary texts to be taught in secondary schools, some consensus would be necessary about the functions of literature as well as about didactic goals, which in turn are related to concepts of morality and political exigencies. For instance, one may decide to teach not only a national ‘great tradition’, but to introduce a European perspective by incorporating works from abroad into the curriculum, if necessary in translation. In view of the fact that Europe is a multicultural community, it is of long-term interest to guarantee the pluriformity of any school canon of literature.

Information is carried along nerve fibres by electrical pulses generated by ionic transfer; it is digitally coded. Information transfer between nerve cells depends on the release of a chemical transmitter which acts on specific receptors on the second neurone. This is a non-digital, analogue process which is highly non-linear. It involves the summation of inputs from highly divergent sources. In sensory systems such as vision, extensive compression, feature extraction and other high-level processing occur before presentation to the cerebral cortex, where a massive expansion in distribution of information occurs. Huge numbers of neurones are involved in the central presentation of even simple sensory information. This is because the neural events are relatively slow, so that a massive parallel information flow and processing occurs. Learning and memory involve changes in synaptic efficiency and the development of new stable connective patterns. Memory and recall must involve a comparison of contemporary events with stored information, but cannot involve a one-on-one comparison because it can deal with extensive transformation of sensory information.

The Ulysses mission (a joint venture between ESA and NASA) represents the first attempt in the history of mankind and of space research to explore the third dimension of the solar system—underneath and above the ecliptic plane. The European spacecraft was launched on 6 October 1990 by the American shuttle Discovery in the direction of Jupiter, whose gravitational attraction it uses to acquire the proper velocity and to change the plane of its orbit in order to fly above the poles of the Sun in 1994 and 1995. The objectives of the mission are studies of the solar wind, the heliospheric plasma and the solar magnetic field in that region of the Solar System where it extends radially, i.e. above the poles. The mission can fulfil several other objectives in the field of solar physics and other areas such as the propagation of cosmic rays, the penetration of the interstellar gas in the solar system, gamma-ray bursts and gravitational waves. The mission is now fully operating. Preliminary results obtained when the satellite was en route to Jupiter and during the fly-by of Jupiter are presented in the article. Their quality and novelty already indicate that this unique mission will achieve its objectives and be a new success for European space science.

The lecture outlines a conceptual framework for the analysis of changes in those countries going through the transformation from a socialist economy to a market economy. It takes a positive predictive approach. It describes seven tendencies which are very likely to apply.

(1) Marketization replacing the command economy.

(2) The evolution of the private sector—a broad new middle class will develop.

(3) Reproduction of macrodisequilibria. The inherited imbalance, namely chronic and intensive shortage will be eliminated, but inflation, budget deficit, unemployment and foreign indebtedness will remain in various configurations.

(4) Development of a constitutional state.

(5) Development of democratic institutions.

(6) The redefinition of a national community—which tendency might be accompanied by severe tensions and conflicts.

(7) Unequal increase of welfare.

Finally the paper discusses the role of academics in the process of transformation.

Human migration has a long and complicated history. A survey of the various migration streams reveals that between 1492 and the present, Europeans have benefitted in much greater numbers from the ‘migration escape hatch’ than have Africans and Asians.

The immigration pattern in Germany has changed from emigration to immigration. The state has yet to recognize this fact and to come to terms with the social requirements that this entails. Public attitudes emphasize the difficulties that emigrants bring but are insufficiently attuned to the positive economic and cultural aspects of emigration.

A large part of the migration of Europeans overseas was to colonial possessions. With the dissolution of colonial ties, large-scale repatriation of individuals to the home countries has occurred with many dispersed indigenous people, who for political or economic motives, no longer found their circumstances favourable. These secondary migrations have had important economic and sociological effects.

European countries are introducing increasing barriers to immigration. With the gradual abolition of border controls within Western Europe, a uniform agreement is needed such as outlined in the Schengen accord which makes full allowance for genuine refugees. The pressure to accept immigrants from Eastern Europe will be very strong.

The basic theory is presented through a parable, showing that immigrants do not lower the incomes of natives, on balance. The main empirical issues are also discussed: contrary to popular belief, immigrants into the U.S. and Canada, and almost surely into Europe as well, pay more in taxes than they receive in welfare transfers, thereby enriching natives. Also, an extensive body of recent research finds that immigration does not increase native unemployment.