Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-7cvxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T14:11:33.444Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

From the Parochial to the Universal: Comparing Cloth Cultures in the Bronze Age

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 January 2017

Susanna Harris
Susanna Harris*
Affiliation:
Institute of Archaeology, University College London, UK
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The aim of this research is to compare the cloth cultures of Europe and Egypt in the Bronze Age and New Kingdom. The comparison focuses on the fourteenth century cal BC and includes four geographically separate areas, including the oak coffin burials of southern Scandinavia, the Hallstatt salt mines of central Europe, Late Minoan Crete, and the tombs and towns of the later Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt. The comparative approach can bring insights even when applied to unconnected cultures or regions. However, in this study I concentrate on a restricted chronological period and areas that were connected, directly or indirectly, by widespread networks of trade or exchange. The concept of cloth cultures is used to include both textiles and animal skins as these were closely related materials in the prehistoric past. Information was gathered according to the following categories: raw materials, including textile fibre, and species of skins; fabric structure and thread count (only for textiles); decoration and finish; and use and context. From this study, it is possible to recognize the universally shared principles of cloth cultures and the great versatility and creativity in the regional cloth cultures of the Bronze Age.

Le but de cette étude est la comparaison des cultures de tissus en Europe et en Égypte pendant l'Âge du Bronze et le Nouvel Royaume. Cette comparaison se concentre sur le 14e siècle BC et quatre régions géographiquement distinctes, incluant les sépultures dans les cercueils en chêne de la Scandinavie méridionale, les mines de sel de Hallstatt en Europe centrale, la Minoenne récente en Crète et les tombeaux et les villes d'Egypte de la fin de la 18e dynastie. L'approche comparative, même appliquée à des cultures ou régions non connectées, est toutefois capable de fournir des résultats. Néanmoins je me concentre dans cette étude à une période chronologique limitée et à des régions reliées, directement ou indirectement, par des réseaux de commerce ou d'échange. Le concept de ‘cultures de tissus’ est utilisé afin d'inclure aussi bien les textiles que les peaux d'animaux, dans la mesure où ceux-ci étaient, dans le passé préhistorique, des matériaux étroitement liés. Les informations sont rassemblées selon les catégories suivantes : matériaux bruts incluant fibres de textile et espèces de peaux, structure du tissu et tissage (uniquement pour textiles), décoration et finition, utilisation et contexte. Cette étude nous permet d'identifier les principes universellement partagés des cultures de tissus et la grande polyvalence et créativité dans les cultures de tissus régionales durant l'Âge du Bronze. Translation by Isabelle Gerges.

Zusammenfassung

Zusammenfassung

Das Ziel dieser Studie ist es, die Textilekulturen von Europa und Ägypten in der Bronzezeit und dem Neuen Reich zu vergleichen. Der Vergleich konzentriert sich auf das 14. Jh. v. Chr. und schließt vier geographisch unabhängige Gebiete ein, darunter die Baumsargbestattungen Südskandinaviens, die hallstattzeitlichen Salzbergwerke Mitteleuropas, die späte Minoische Kultur auf Kreta sowie die Gräber und Städte der späteren 18. Dynastie in Ägypten. Der vergleichende Ansatz ermöglicht Erkenntnisse selbst bei der Anwendung auf miteinander unverbundene Kulturen oder Gebiete. In dieser Studie konzentriert sich die Verf. jedoch auf eine begrenzte chronologische Periode und miteinander – direkt oder indirekt – durch weite Handels- oder Austauschnetzwerke miteinander verbundene Gebiete. Das Konzept von Textilekulturen wird für Textilien wie auch Tierhäute gleichermaßen genutzt, da diese in der Vorgeschichte eng miteinander verbundene Materialien waren. Für die folgenden Kategorien wurden Informationen erfasst: Rohmaterialien einschließlich Textilfasern und Arten von Tierhäuten, Faserstruktur und Fadenanzahl (nur bei Textilien), Dekoration und Konfektionierung, Nutzung und Kontext. Durch diese Studie ist es möglich, die allgemein geteilten Prinzipien von Textilekulturen und die große Vielseitigkeit und Kreativität der regionalen Textilekultur der Bronzezeit zu erkennen. Translation by Heiner Schwarzberg.

Keywords

textilesanimal skinsBronze Agecloth cultureclothingtextilespeaux d'animauxÂge du Bronzeculture de tissusvêtementsTextilienTierhäuteBronzezeitTextilekulturKleidung
Type
Articles
Information
European Journal of Archaeology , Volume 15 , Issue 1 , 2012 , pp. 61 - 97
Copyright
Copyright © European Association of Archaeologists 2012 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Allgrove-McDowell, J. 2003. Industries of the Near East and Europe in Prehistory. In: Jenkins, D., ed. The Cambridge History of Western Textiles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 30–39.Google Scholar
Andersson, E. & Nosch, M.-L.B. 2003. With a little help from my friends: investigating Mycenaean textiles with help from Scandinavian experimental archaeology. In: Foster, K.P. & Laffineur, R., eds. Metron Measuring the Aegean Bronze Age. Proceedings of the 9th International Aegean Conference/9e Rencontre égéenne internationale New Haven, Yale University, 18–21 April 2002, vol. 24. Liège: Université de Liège, Histoire de l'Art et Archeologie de la Grèce Antique, and Austin, TX: University of Texas at Austin Program in Aegean Scripts and Prehistory, pp. 192–206.Google Scholar
Andersson Strand, E., Gleba, M., Mannering, U., Nosch, M.L.-B. & Skals, I. 2010. Old Textiles – New Possibilities. European Journal of Archaeology, 13: 149–73.Google Scholar
Aner, E. & Kerstein, K. 1973. Die Funde der älteren Bronzezeit des nordischen Kreises in Dänemark, Schleswig-Holstein und Niedersachsen. Band 1. København: Frederiksborg und Kabenhavn Amt Verlag Nationalmuseum Kabenhavn Karl Wachholtz Verlag Neumünster.Google Scholar
Barber, E.J.W. 1991. Prehistoric Textiles: The Development of Cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze Age with Special Reference to the Aegean. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barber, E.J.W. 1997. Minoan Women and the Challenges of Weaving for Home, Trade and Shrine. In: Laffineur, R. & Betancourt, P.P. eds. Sixth International Aegean Conference. Techne: Craftsmen, Craftswomen and Craftsmanship in the Aegean Bronze Age. Proceedings of the 6th International Aegean Conference/6e Rencontre égéenne Internationale Philadelphia, Temple University, 18–21 April 1996. Liège: Université de Liège, pp. 515–19.Google Scholar
Barnes, R. & Eicher, J.B. 1993. Introduction. In: Barnes, R. & Eicher, J.B. eds. Dress and Gender: Making and Meaning in Cultural Contexts. Vol. 2. Oxford: Berg Providence, pp. 1–7.Google Scholar
Barth, F.E. 1992. Zu den Tragsäcken aus dem Salzbergwerk Hallstatt. Archaeologia Austriaca, 76: 121–27.Google Scholar
Barth, F.E. 1994. Ein Füllort des 12. Jahrhunderts v. Chr.im Hallstätter Salzberg. Mitteilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien, 123-124: 27–38.Google Scholar
Bender Jørgensen, L. 1986. Forhistoriske textiler i Skandinavien: Prehistoric Scandinavian textiles. København: Kongelige Nordiske Oldskriftselskab.Google Scholar
Bender Jørgensen, L. 1992. North European textiles until AD 1000. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press.Google Scholar
Bender Jørgensen, L. 2003. Europe. In: Jenkins, D. ed. The Cambridge History of Western Textiles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 52–70.Google Scholar
Bender Jørgensen, L., Munksgaard, E. & Stærmose Neilsen, K.-H. 1982. Melhøj-fundet. En hidtil upåagtet parallel til Skrydstrup-fundet/English Summary: Melhøj—an unheeded parallel to the Skrydstrup find. Aarbøger for Nordisk Oldkyndighed og Historie, 1982: 19–75.Google Scholar
Bergerbrant, S. 2007. Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC. Lindome: Bricoleur Press.Google Scholar
Bierbrier, M.L. 2006. Genealogy and Chronology. In: Hornung, E., Krauss, R. & Warburton, D.A. eds. Ancient Egyptian Chronology. Leiden: Brill, pp. 37–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bietak, M. 2007. Egypt and the Levant. In: T. Wilkinson ed. The Egyptian World. London: Routledge, pp. 417–48.Google Scholar
Boye, V. 1986 1896. Fund af egekister fra bron-zealderen i Danmark. Illustrerei af A.P. Madsen. Med efterskrift af Mogens Ørsnes. Reprint. Aarhus: Wormianum.Google Scholar
Brewer, D. 2007. Agriculture and Animal Husbandry. In: Wilkinson, T. ed. The Egyptian World. London: Routledge, pp. 131–45.Google Scholar
Broholm, H.C. & Hald, M. 1940. Costumes of the Bronze Age in Denmark: Contributions to the Archaeology and Textile History of the Bronze Age. Copenhagen: Arnold Busck, NYT Nordisk Forlag.Google Scholar
Broodbank, C. 2009. The Mediterranean and its Hinterland. In: Cunliffe, B., Gosden, C. & Joyce, R.A. eds. The Oxford Handbook of Archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 677–722.Google Scholar
Burke, B. 1999. Purple and Textile Trade in the Early Second Millennium B.C. In: Betancourt, P.P., Karageorghis, V., Laffineur, R. & Niemeier, W.D. eds. Meletemata: Studies in Aegean Archaeology Presented to Malcolm H. Wiener as he Enters his 65th Year. Liège : Université de Liège, Histoire de l'Art et Archeologie de la Grèce Antique, and Austin, TX: University of Texas at Austin, Program in Aegean Scripts and Prehistory. Aegaeum, 20, pp. 75–82.Google Scholar
Burke, B. 2010. From Minos to Midas: Ancient Cloth Production in the Aegean and in Anatolia. Oxford & Oakville: Oxbow Books. Ancient Textiles Series, 7.Google Scholar
Burnham, D.K. 1973. Cut My Cote. Toronto: The Royal Ontario Museum.Google Scholar
Carter, H. 1927. The Tomb of Tut-Ankh-Amen Discovered by the late Earl of Carnarvon and Howard Carter. Vol. 2. London: Cassell.Google Scholar
Carter, H. 1933. The Tomb of Tut-Ankh-Amen Discovered by the late Earl of Carnarvon and Howard Carter. Vol. 3. London: Cassell.Google Scholar
Chandler, D. 1995. Learning to Weave. Colorado: Interweave Press.Google Scholar
Christensen, K. 2006. Dendrochronology Dating of Bronze Age Oak Coffins from Denmark and Schleswig. Acta Archaeologica, 77: 163–242.Google Scholar
Comis, S.Y. 2003. Aktuelles aus den Nachbarländern. In: Bender Jorgensen, L., Banck-Burgess, J. & Rast-Eicher, A. eds. Textilien aus Archäologie und Geschichte. Festschrift für Klaus Tidow. Neumünster: Wachholtz, pp. 193–204.Google Scholar
Davies, N.M. & Gardiner, A.H. 1926. The Tomb of Huy, Viceroy of Nubia in the Reign of Tut'ankhamun, (no. 40) Copied in Line and Colour by Nina de Garis Davies and with Explanatory Text by Alan H. Gardiner. London: Egypt Exploration Society.Google Scholar
Davies, N.M. 1933. The Tombs of Menkheperrasonb, Amenmosě, and Another (nos. 86, 112, 42, 226) with Plates by Nina de Garis Davies and with an Explanatory Text by Norman de Garis Davies. London: The Egypt Exploration Society.Google Scholar
Davies, N.D.G. 1973. The Tomb of Rekh-mi-Re at Thebes. New York: Arno Press.Google Scholar
Davis, J.L. & Bennet, J. 1999. Making Mycenaeans: Warfare, Territorial Expansion, and Representations of the Other in the Pylian Kingdom. In: Laffmeur, R. ed., POTEMOS. Le Contexte Guerrier en Égée à l'äge du Bronze. Liège: Université de Liège, Histoire de l'Art et Archeologie de la Grèce Antique, and Austin, TX: University of Texas at Austin, Program in Aegean Scripts and Prehistory. Aegaeum, 19, pp. 105–19.Google Scholar
Del Freo, M., Nosch, M.-L. & Rougemont, F. 2010. The Terminology of Textiles in the Linear B Tablets, Including Some Considerations on Linear A Logograms and Abbreviations. In: Michel, C. & Nosch, M.-L. eds. Textile Terminologies in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean from the Third to the First Millennia BC. Oxford: Oxbow Books, pp. 338–73.Google Scholar
Donadoni Roveri, A.M. 2001. The Art of Weaving. Milano: Electa.Google Scholar
Driel-Murray, C. 2000. Leatherwork and Skin Products. In: Nicholson, P.T. & Shaw, I. eds. Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 299–319.Google Scholar
Eicher, J.B. 1995. Introduction: Dress as Expression of Ethnic Identity. In: Eicher, J.B. ed. Dress and Ethnicity: Change Across Space and Time. Berg: Oxford, pp. 1–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Emery, I. 1966. The Primary Structures of Fabrics: An Illustrated Classification. Washington, D.C.: The Textile Museum.Google Scholar
Eskildsen, L. & Lomborg, E. 1976. Giftetanker. Skalk, 5: 18–26.Google Scholar
Fitton, J.L. 2002. Minoans. London: British Museum.Google Scholar
Frei, K., Skals, I., Mannering, U., Gleba, M. & Lyngstrøm, H. 2009. The Huldremose Iron Age Textiles, Denmark: An Attempt to Define their Provenance Applying the Strontium Isotope System. Journal of Archaeological Science, 36 (9): 1965–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Germer, R. 1992. Die Textilfärberei und die Verwendung gefärbter Textilien im alten Ägypten. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.Google Scholar
Glob, P.V. 1974. The Mound People; Danish Bronze Age Man Preserved. London: Book Club Associates, Faber & Faber.Google Scholar
Grabner, M., Klein, A., Geihofer, D., Reschreiter, H., Barth, F.E., Sormaz, T. & Wimmer, R. 2007. Bronze Age dating of Timber from the Salt-mine at Hallstatt, Austria. Dendrochronologia, 24 (2–3): 61–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grajetzki, W. & Quirke, S. 2000. Digital Egypt for Universities [Online]. London: University College London [accessed 5 November 2010]. Available at: <http://www.digitalepypt.ucl.ad.uk>Google Scholar
Groenman-van Waatering, W. 1990. De Kledingstukken van Leder en Bont. In: van der Sanden, W.A.B. ed. Mens en Moeras. Veenlijken in Nederland van de Bronstijd to en Met de Romeinse Tijd. Assen: Drents Museum, pp. 174–80.Google Scholar
Groenman-van Waatering, W. 1992. Analysis of the Hides and Skins from the Hauslabjoch. fahrbuch des Römisch Germanishcen Zentralmuseums, 39 (1): 114–28.Google Scholar
Groenman-van Waatering, W., Kilian, M. & van Londen, H. 1999. The Curing of Hides and Skins in European Prehistory. Antiquity, 73: 884–90.Google Scholar
Grömer, K. 2005. The Textiles from the Prehistoric Salt-Mines at Hallstatt (Die Textilien aus dem Prähistorischen Salzbergwerk von Hallstatt). In: Bichler, P., Grömer, K., Hofmann-de Keijer, R., Kern, A. & Reschneiter, H. eds. Hallstatt Textiles: Technical Analysis, Scientific Investigation and Experiments on Iron Age Textiles. Oxford: Archaeopress, pp. 17–40.Google Scholar
Grömer, K. 2007. Bronzezeitliche Gewebefunde aus Hallstatt – Ihr Kontext in der Textilkunde Mitteleuropas und die Entwicklung der Textiltechnologie zur Eisenzeit (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Institut für Ur- und Frühgeschichte, Universität Wien).Google Scholar
Grömer, K. 2009. Rough Clothes and High Fashion. In: Kern, A. ed. Kingdom of Salt: 7000 Years of Hallstatt. Vienna: Prehistoric Department, Natural History Museum Vienna, pp. 106–13.Google Scholar
Grömer, K. 2010. Prähistorische Textilkunst in Mitteleuropa. Geschichte des Handwerkes und Kleidung vor den Römern mit Beiträgen von Regina Hofmann-de Keijzer zum Thema Färben, und Helga Rösel-Mautendorfer zum Thema Nähen. Wien: Naturhistorisches Museum Wien.Google Scholar
Haines, B.M. 1991. Skin Structure and Leather Properties. In: Calnan, C. & Haines, B. eds. Leather: Its Compositions and Changes with Time. Northampton: The Leather Conservation Centre, pp. 1–11.Google Scholar
Hald, M. 1980. Ancient Danish Textiles from Bogs and Burials: A Comparative Study of Costume and Iron Age Textiles, 2nd ed. Copenhagen: The National Museum of Denmark.Google Scholar
Hall, R. 1986. Egyptian Textiles. Aylesbury: Shire.Google Scholar
Hammarlund, L. 2004. Handicraft Knowledge Applied to Archaeological Textiles. Fabric Thickness and Density: A Method of Grouping Textiles. Archaeological Textiles Newsletter, 39: 7–11.Google Scholar
Harding, A.F. 2000. European Societies in the Bronze Age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, S. 2006. A Report on the Examination of Animal Skin Artefacts from the Bronze Age Salt Mines of Hallstatt, Austria. Papers from the Institute of Archaeology, 17: 69–76.Google Scholar
Harris, S. 2008. Textiles, Cloth, and Skins: The Problem of Terminology and Relationship. Textile: The Journal of Cloth & Culture, 6 (3): 222–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, S. 2010a. Cloth Cultures in Prehistoric Europe: Project Concept and Approach. Archaeological Textile Newsletter, 50: 30–31.Google Scholar
Harris, S. 2010b. Smooth and Cool, or Warm and Soft: Investigating the Properties of Cloth in Prehistory. In: Andersson, E., Gleba, M., Andersson Strand, E.B. & Mannering, U. eds. North European Symposium for Archaeological Textiles X. Oxford: Oxbow Books, pp. 104–12.Google Scholar
Harris, S., Rösel-Mautendorfer, , Grömer, K. H. & Reschreiter, H. 2010. Cloth Cultures in Prehistoric Europe: The Bronze Age Evidence from Hallstatt. Archaeology International, 12: 22–26.Google Scholar
Hauser-Schäublin, B. 1996. The Thrill of the Line, the String, and the Frond, or Why the Abelam are a Non-Cloth Culture. Oceania, 67 (2): 81–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henriksen, P.S. 2009. Archaeobotanical Evidence of Flax in Prehistoric Denmark. In: Karg, S. ed. Communicating Culture: Workshop Info. 1 [online]. Copenhagen: The Danish National Research Foundation's Centre for Textile [accessed 4 March 2010]. Available at: <http://cms.ku.dk/hum-sites/saxo-sites/projekter/flax/workshop/FLAX_workshop_2009_Abstract_WS1.pdf Google Scholar
Hofmann-de Keijzer, R. & van Bommel, M.R. 2009. Colour and Colouring. In: Kern, A. ed. Kingdom of Salt: 7000 Years of Hallstatt. Vienna: Prehistoric Department, Natural History Museum Vienna, pp. 112–13.Google Scholar
Hood, S. 2005. Dating the Knossos Frescoes. In: Morgan, L. ed. Aegean Wall Painting: A Tribute to Mark Cameron. London: British School at Athens, pp. 45–81.Google Scholar
Hornung, E., Krauss, R. & Warburton, D.A. 2006a. Chronological Table for the Dynastic Period. In: Hornung, E., Krauss, R. & Warburton, D.A. eds. Ancient Egyptian Chronology. Leiden: Brill, pp. 490–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hornung, E., Krauss, R. & Warburton, D.A. 2006b. King-Lists and Manetho's Aigyptiaka. In: Hornung, E., Krauss, R. & Warburton, D.A. eds. Ancient Egyptian Chronology. Leiden: Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hornung, E., Krauss, R. & Warburton, D.A. 2006c. Methods of Dating and the Egyptian Calendar. In: Hornung, E., Krauss, R. & Warburton, D.A. eds. Ancient Egyptian Chronology. Leiden: Brill, pp. 45–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hundt, H.-J. 1974. Die Gewebereste von Gevelinghausen. Germania, 52: 48–51.Google Scholar
Immerwhar, S.A. 1990. Aegean Painting in the Bronze Age. London: Pennsylvania State University Press.Google Scholar
Jensen, J. 1982. The Prehistory of Denmark. London and New York: Methuen.Google Scholar
Jopling, C.F. 1975. Yalàlag Weaving: Its Aesthetic, Technological and Economic Nexus. In: Lechtman, H. & Merrill, R.S. eds. Material Culture: Style, Organization, and Dynamics of Technology. New York: West Publishing Co, pp. 211–36.Google Scholar
Keeper and Staff of the Dept. of Ancient Egypt and Sudan. 2007. The British Museum Book of Ancient Egypt. New. ed. London: The British Museum.Google Scholar
Kellogg, K. 1984. Home Tanning and Leathercraft Simplified. Charlotte, Vermont: Williamson Publishing Co.Google Scholar
Kemp, B.J. 1989. Ancient Egypt : Anatomy of a Civilization. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Kemp, B.J. & Vogelsang-Eastwood, G. 2001. The Ancient Textile Industry at Amarna. London: Egypt Exploration Society.Google Scholar
Kendall, T. 2007. Egypt and Nubia. In: Wilkinson, T. ed. The Egyptian World. London: Routledge, pp. 401–16.Google Scholar
Killen, J.T. 2007. Cloth production in Late Bronze Age Greece: the documentary evidence. In: Gillis, C. & Nosch, M.-L.B. eds. Ancient Textiles: Production, Craft and Society. Proceedings of the First International Conference on Ancient Textiles, held at Lund, Sweden, and Copenhagen, Denmark on March 19–23, 2003. Oxford: Oxbow Books, pp. 50–58.Google Scholar
Knapp, B. 1991. Spices, drugs, grain and grog: organic goods in Bronze Age East Mediterranean trade. In: Gale, N.H. ed. Bronze Age Trade in the Mediterranean: Papers Presented at the Conference held at Rewley House, Oxford, in December 1989. Jonsered: Åstrom. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 90, pp. 21–52.Google Scholar
Kontorli-Papadopoulou, L. 1996. Aegean Frescoes of Religious Character. Göteborg: P. Åströms.Google Scholar
Kristiansen, K. & Larsson, T. 2005. The Rise of Bronze Age Society: Travels, Transmissions and Transformations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Kruuk, H. 1995. Wild Otters: Predation and Populations. Drawings by Brown, Diana. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lang, L.M. 1969. The Palace of Nestor at Pylos in Western Messenia: The Frescoes. Princeton: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lechtman, H. 1975. Style in Technology: Some Early Thoughts. In: Lechtman, H. & Merrill, R.S. eds. Material Culture: Style, Organization, and Dynamics of Technology. New York: West Publishing Co, pp. 3–21.Google Scholar
Lemmonier, P. 1993. Introduction. In: Lemonnier, P. ed. Technological Choices: Transformation in Material Cultures since the Neolithic. London: Routledge, pp. 1–35.Google Scholar
Malmer, M.P. 1981. A Chorological Study of North European Rock Art. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell.Google Scholar
Mandi, F. 2009. The High Pastures. In: Kern, A. ed. Kingdom of Salt: 7000 Years of Hallstatt. Vienna: Prehistoric Department, Natural History Museum Vienna, pp. 80–81.Google Scholar
Manning, S.W. 1999. A Test of Time: The Volcano of Thera and the Chronology and History of the Aegean and East Mediterranean in the Mid Second Millennium BC. Oxford: Oxbow.Google Scholar
Manning, S.W. 2006. Radiocarbon dating and Egyptian chronology. In: Hornung, E., Krauss, R. & Warburton, D.A. eds. Ancient Egyptian Chronology. Leiden: Brill, pp. 327–55.Google ScholarPubMed
Marcar, A. 2005. Reconstructing Aegean Bronze Age fashions. In: Cleland, L., Harlow, M. & Llewellyn-Jones, L. eds. The Clothed Body in the Ancient World. Oxford: Oxbow, 30–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marinatos, N. 2010. Minoan Kingship and the Solar Goddess: A Near Eastern Koine. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
McCorriston, J. 1997. The Fibre Revolution: Textile Extensification, Alientation, and Social Stratification in Ancient Mesopotamia. Current Anthropology, 38 (4): 517–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Militello, P. 2007. Textile Industry and Minoan Palaces. In: Gillis, C. & Nosch, M.-L.B. eds. Ancient Textiles: Production, Craft and Society. Proceedings of the First International Conference on Ancient Textiles, held at Lund, Sweden, and Copenhagen, Denmark on March 19–23, 2003. Oxford: Oxbow Books, pp. 36–45.Google Scholar
Moeller, N. 2007. Urban Life. In: Wilkinson, T. ed. The Egyptian World. London: Routledge, pp. 57–72.Google Scholar
Möller-Wiering, S. 2006. Tools and Textiles, Texts and Contexts. Bronze Age Textiles Found in Crete [online]. Copenhagen: The Danish National Research Foundation's Centre for Textile Research University of Copenhagen [accessed 9 February 2011]. Available at: <http://ctr.hum.ku.dk/research/tools/bronze_age_textiles_found_in_crete.pdf/>Google Scholar
Morgan, L. 1988. The Miniature Wall Paintings of Thera: A Study in Aegean Culture and Iconography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Moulhérat, C. & Spantidaki, Y. 2007. Preliminary Results from the Textiles Discovered in Santorini. In: Rast-Eicher, A., Windler, R. & Wild, J.-P. eds. North European Symposium for Archaeological Textiles IX, 2005, Braunwald, Switzerland. Archäologische Textilfunde – Archaeological Textiles. Ennenda: Archeo Tex.Google Scholar
Moulhérat, C. & Spantidaki, G. 2009. Cloth from Kastelli, Chania. Arachne, 3: 8–15.Google Scholar
Perini, R. 1970. Una Decorazione sul Tessuto Dalla Palafitta di Ledro. Natura Alpina, 21 (1): 28–32.Google Scholar
Popa, G. 2009. Leather, Fur and Skin – Critical Raw Materials for Prehistoric Mining. In: Kern, A. ed. Kingdom of Salt: 7000 Years of Hallstatt. Vienna: Prehistoric Department, Natural History Museum Vienna, pp. 102–05.Google Scholar
Preston, L. 2008. Late Minoan II and HIB Crete. In: Shelmerdine, C.W. ed. The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 310–26.Google Scholar
Preziosi, D. & Hitchcock, L.A. 1999. Aegean Art and Architecture. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Pritchard, F. 2006. Clothing Culture: Dress in Egypt in the First Millennium AD. Clothing from Egypt in the Collection of the Whitworth Art Gallery, the University of Manchester. Manchester: Whitworth Art Gallery.Google Scholar
Randsborg, K. 2006. Opening the Oak-Coffins: New Dates, New Perspectives. Acta Archaeologica, 77: 3–162.Google Scholar
Randsborg, K. 2011. Bronze Age Textiles: Men, Women and Wealth. London: Bristol Classical Press.Google Scholar
Rasmussen, M. & Adamsen, C. 1993. Settlement. In: Hvass, S. & Storgaard, B. eds. Digging into the Past: 25 Years of Archaeology in Denmark, trans. by Hines, J. Aarhus: Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries, Aarhus Universitetsforlag & Jutland Archaeological Society, pp. 136–44.Google Scholar
Rast-Eicher, A. 2005. Bast before Wool: the First Textiles. In: Bichler, P., Grömer, K., Hofmann-de Keijer, R., Kern, A. & Reschneiter, H. eds. Hallstatt Textiles: Technical Analysis, Scientific Investigation and Experiments on Iron Age Textiles. Oxford: Archaeopress, pp. 117–31.Google Scholar
Reschreiter, H. 2005. Die Prähistorischen Salzbergbaue in Hallstatt und ihre Textilreste. (The Prehistoric Salt-Mines at Hallstatt and its Textile Remains.) In: Bichler, P., Grömer, K., Hofmann-de Keijer, R., Kern, A. & Reschneiter, H. eds. Hallstatt Textiles: Technical Analysis, Scientific Investigation and Experiments on Iron Age Textiles. Oxford: Archaeopress, pp. 11–16.Google Scholar
Reschreiter, H. & Kowarik, K. 2009a. Puzzling Buildings. In: Kern, A. ed. Kingdom of Salt: 7000 Years of Hallstatt. Vienna: Prehistoric Department, Natural History Museum Vienna, pp. 72–73.Google Scholar
Reschreiter, H. & Kowarik, K. 2009b. Puzzling Gaps. In: Kern, A. ed. Kingdom of Salt: 7000 Years of Hallstatt. Vienna: Prehistoric Department, Natural History Museum Vienna, pp. 70–71.Google Scholar
Reschreiter, H. & Kowarik, K. 2009c. The ‘Heidengebirge’. In: Kern, A. ed. Kingdom of Salt: 7000 Years of Hallstatt. Vienna: Prehistoric Department, Natural History Museum Vienna, pp. 36–39.Google Scholar
Reschreiter, H. & Kowarik, K. 2009d. The Bronze Age Initiative. In: Kern, A. ed. Kingdom of Salt: 7000 Years of Hallstatt. Vienna: Prehistoric Department, Natural History Museum Vienna, pp. 48–64.Google Scholar
Robins, G. 2007. Art. In: Wilkinson, T. ed. The Egyptian World. London: Routledge, pp. 355–65.Google Scholar
Roehrig, C.H. 1996. Women's Work: Some Occupations of Nonroyal Women as Depicted in Ancient Egyptian Art. In: Capel, A. K. & Markoe, G.E. eds. Mistress of the House, Mistress of Heaven: Women in Ancient Egypt. New York: Hudson Hills Press in Association with Cincinnati Art Museum, pp. 13–24.Google Scholar
Rougemont, F. 2007. Flax and Linen Textiles in the Mycenaean Palatial Economy. In: Gillis, C. & Nosch, M.-L.B. eds. Ancient Textiles: Production, Craft and Society. Proceedings of the First International Conference on Ancient Textiles, held at Lund, Sweden, and Copenhagen, Denmark on March 19–23, 2003. Oxford: Oxbow Books, pp. 46–49.Google Scholar
Ryder, M. 1988. Danish Bronze Age Wools. Journal of Danish Archaeology, 7: 136–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ryder, M. 1992. Iron Age, Haired, Animal Skins from Hallstatt, Austria. Oxford Journal of Archaeology, 11: 1, 55–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ryder, M.L. 1990. Skin and Wool Remains from Hallstatt. Mitteilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien, 120: 103–12.Google Scholar
Ryder, M.L. 2005. The Human Development of Different Fleece-Types in Sheep and its Association with the Development of Textile Crafts. In: Pritchard, F. & Wild, J.-P. eds. Seventh North European Symposium for Archaeological Textiles, 5–7 May 1999, Edinburgh, Scotland: Northern Archaeological Textiles. Oxford: Oxbow Books, pp. 122–28.Google Scholar
Ryholt, K. 2006. The Turin King-List or So-Called Turin Canon (TC) as Source for Chronology. In: Hornung, E., Krauss, R. & Warburton, D.A. eds. Ancient Egyptian Chronology. Leiden: Brill, pp. 26–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schlumbaum, A., Campos, P.F., Volken, S., Volken, M., Hafner, A. & Schibier, J. 2010. Ancient DNA, a Neolithic Legging from the Swiss Alps and the Early History of Goat. Journal of Archaeological Science, 30: 1–5.Google Scholar
Schneider, J. & Weiner, A. 1986. Introduction. In: Weiner, A.B. & Schneider, J. ed. Cloth and Human Experience. Washington, D.C & London: Smithsonian Institute Press.Google Scholar
Shapland, A. 2010. The Minoan Lion: Presence and Absence on Bronze Age Crete. World Archaeology, 42 (2): 273–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shelmerdine, C.W. 2008. Background, Sources, and Methods. In: Shelmerdine, C.W. ed. The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sherratt, A. 1981. Plough and Pastoralism: Aspects of the Secondary Products Revolution. In: Hodder, I., Isaac, G. & Hammon, N. eds. Patterns of the Past. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 261–305.Google Scholar
Sherratt, A. 1993. What Would a Bronze-Age World System Look Like? Relations between Temperate Europe and the Mediterranean in later prehistory. Journal of European Archaeology, 1 (2): 1–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sørensen, M.L.S. 1997. Reading Dress: The Construction of Social Categories and Identities in Bronze Age Europe. Journal of European Archaeology, 5 (1): 93–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spalinger, A. 2007. The Army. In: Wilkinson, T. ed. The Egyptian World. London: Routledge, pp. 118–28.Google Scholar
Spence, K. 2007. Architecture. In: Wilkinson, T. ed. The Egyptian World. London: Routledge, pp. 366–87.Google Scholar
Spindler, K. 1995. The Man in the Ice: The Preserved Body of a Neolithic Man Reveals the Secrets of the Stone Age. London: Phoenix.Google Scholar
Stanley Smith, C. 1970. The Cover Design. Art, Technology, and Science: Notes on their Historical Interaction. Technology and Culture, 11 (4): 493–549.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steel, L. 2007. Egypt and the Mediterranean World. In: Wilkinson, T. ed. The Egyptian World. London: Routledge, pp. 459–75.Google Scholar
Szeverenyi, V. 2004. The Early and Middle Bronze Ages in Central Europe. In: Bogucki, P. & Crabtree, P.J. eds. Ancient Europe 8000 B.C. – A.D. 1000: Encyclopedia of the Barbarian World. New York & London: Thompson/Gale.Google Scholar
Tidow, K. 1992. Wollengewebe aus dem Bronzezeitlichen Baumsargfund von Harrisleebei Flensburg. In: Bender Jørgensen, L. & Munksgaard, E. eds. Textiles in European Archaeology: Report from the 4th NESAT Symposium, 1–5th May 1990 in Copenhagen. Vol. 5. Copenhagen: Konservatorskolen Det Kongelige Danske Kunstakademi, pp. 31–36.Google Scholar
Tite, M.S. & Sillar, B. 2000. The Challenge of ‘Technological Choices’ for Materials Science Approaches in Archaeology. Archaeometry, 42 (1): 2–20.Google Scholar
Trnka, E. 2007. Similarities and Distinctions of Minoan and Mycenaean textiles. In: Gillis, C. & Nosch, M.-L.B. eds. Ancient Textiles: Production, Craft and Society. Proceedings of the First International Conference on Ancient Textiles, held at Lund, Sweden, and Copenhagen, Denmark on March 19–23, 2003. Oxford: Oxbow Books, pp. 127–29.Google Scholar
Tyson Smith, S. 2007. Ethnicity and Culture. In: Wilkinson, T. ed. The Egyptian World. London: Routledge, pp. 218–41.Google Scholar
Vankilde, H. 1996. From Stone to Bronze: The Metalwork of the Late Neolithic and Earliest Bronze Age in Denmark, with a Contribution by Peter Northover. Moesgard, Aarhus: Jutland Archaeological Society.Google Scholar
Vankilde, H. 2004. Bronze Age Scandinavia. In: Bogucki, P. & Crabtree, P.J. eds. Ancient Europe 8000 B.C. – A.D. 1000: Encyclopedia of the Barbarian World. New York & London: Thompson/Gale.Google Scholar
Vankilde, H., Rahbek, U. & Rasmussen, K.L. 1996. Radiocarbon Dating and the Chronology of Bronze Age Southern Scandinavia. In: Randsborg, K. ed. Absolute Chronology: Archaeological Europe 2500–500 BC. København: Munksgaard. Acta Archaeologica 67, pp. 183–98.Google Scholar
van Wees, H. 2005. Trailing Tunics and Sheepskin Coats: Dress and Status in Early Greece. In: Cleland, L., Harlow, M. & Llewellyn-Jones, L. eds. The Clothed Body in the Ancient World. Oxford: Oxbow, pp. 44–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Veldmeijer, A. & Endenburg, E. 2007. Amarna leatherwork in the Berlin Museum. Egyptian Archaeology, 31: 36–37.Google Scholar
Veldmeijer, A.J. 2010. Amarna's Leatherwork. Part I. Preliminary Analysis and Catalogue. Norg, The Netherlands: Druk Ware.Google Scholar
Vogelsang-Eastwood, G. 1992. The Production of Linen in Pharaonic Egypt. Leiden: Textile Research Centre.Google Scholar
Vogelsang-Eastwood, G. 1993. Pharaonic Egyptian Clothing. Leiden & New York: E.J. Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vogelsang-Eastwood, G. 1999. Tutankhamun's Wardrobe: Garments from the Tomb of Tutankhamun. With Illustrations by Martin Hense and Kelvin Wilson. Rotterdam: Barjesteh van Waalwijk van Doom & Co.Google Scholar
Vogelsang-Eastwood, G. 2000. Textiles. In: Nicholson, P. T. & Shaw, I. eds. Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 268–98.Google Scholar
Walton, P. & Eastwood, G. 1988. A Brief Guide to the Cataloguing of Archaeological Textiles, 4th ed. London: Institute of Archaeology.Google Scholar
Wardle, K.A. 1994. The Palace Civilizations of Minoan Crete and Mycenaean Greece 2000–1200 BC. In: Cunliffe, B. ed. The Oxford Illustrated Prehistory of Europe. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 202–43.Google Scholar
Warren, P. 1996. The Aegean and the Limits of Radiocarbon Dating. Acta Archaeologica, 67: 283–90.Google Scholar
Wiener, M. 1987. Trade and Rule in Palatial Crete. In: Hägg, R. ed. Function of the Minoan Palace: 10–16 June, 1984. Göteborg: äström, pp. 261–65.Google Scholar
Wild, J.-P. 2003. Anatolia and the Levantin the Neolithic and Chalcolithic Periods, c.8000–3500/3300 BC. In: Jenkins, D. ed. The Cambridge History of Western Textiles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 39–43.Google Scholar
Wilkinson, T. 2007. Egypt and Mesopotamia. In: Wilkinson, T. ed. The Egyptian World. London: Routledge, pp. 449–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winiger, J. 1995. Die Bekleidung des Eismannes und die Anfänge der Weberei nördlich der Alpen. In: Spindler, K., Rastbichler-Zissernig, E., Wilfing, H., Zur Nedden, D. & Nothdurfter, H. eds. Der Mann im Eis: Neue Funde und Ergebnisse. Vol. 2. Wien & New York: Springer-Verlag, pp. 119–88.Google Scholar
Wobst, H.M. 1977. Stylistic Behaviour and Information Exchange. In: Cleland, C.E. ed. For the Director: Research Essays in Honor of James B. Griffin. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Museum of Anthropology, pp. 317–42.Google Scholar