An anonymized point-prevalence survey of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) carriage was conducted amongst a stratified random sample of nursing home residents in Birmingham, UK, during 1994. Microbiological sampling from noses, fingers and the environment was undertaken. Information about potential risk factors for the acquisition of MRSA was gathered. MRSA was isolated from cultures of the nose or fingers of 33 of the 191 residents who took part in the study (17%) but only 1 of the 33 positive residents had a clinical infection. Although just 10 of the 87 environmental samples were MRSA positive, there was some environmental contamination in most homes. Risk factors for MRSA carriage were hospital admission within the last year (relative prevalence 2·09, 95% CI 1·13–3·88; P < 0·05) and surgical procedures within the last year (relative prevalence 4·02, 95% CI 2·18–7·43; P = 0·002). Phage-typing of the strains revealed similarities with those circulating in Birmingham hospitals. These findings suggest that the prevalence of MRSA in nursing homes in Birmingham was high, and that the strains may have originated in hospitals.

Laboratory-based surveillance of invasive pneumococcal infections in adults in Finland from 1983 to 1992 identified 862 episodes of pneumococcal bacteraemia and 97 episodes of meningitis. The overall incidence of invasive pneumococcal infections was 9·1 per 100000 for all adults per year, but 27·1, 35·8, and 44·5 per 100000 in those aged 65 years or over, 75 years or over, and 85 years or over, respectively. Most (99·7%) of the pneumococcal strains were sensitive to penicillin. Ninety-five percent of the strains belonged to serogroups/types present in the 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine. Group/type distribution was different in patients aged 16–64 years compared to those 65 years or over (P < 0·001), in bacteraemia compared to meningitis (P < 0·001), and in the years 1983–7 compared to 1988–92 (P < 0·05).

A dairy herd associated with Escherichia coli O157 infection in humans was studied for the 15 months following the outbreak to examine seasonal, age and management factors affecting faecal excretion of the organism and to determine the mode and frequency of milk contamination with the organism. Between May 1993 and July 1994, 28 visits were made to the farm to collect a total of 3593 rectal swabs from cows, heifers and calves and 329 milk samples. E.coli O157:H7 was isolated from 153 (4·3%) of 3593 bovine rectal swabs. The maximum prevalence at any one visit was 14% in lactating cows, 40% in non-lactating cows, 56% in calves and 68% in heifers. The prevalence in lactating cows, which was significantly lower than in the other groups, peaked during May–July 1993 and again briefly after the cattle were housed during November 1993 and then again during May 1994. Excretion rates of E. coli O157:H7 in lactating cows were highest during the first month after calving, falling during lactation and rising to another peak at 7 months postpartum. Between November 1993 and May 1994 there was no evidence of excretion in any group. Eighty-seven (74%) of the animals which excreted E. coli O157:H7 did so on only one occasion but 23 (32%) of 73 cows and heifers and 7 (16%) of 44 calves which excreted the organism did so on more than one occasion. E. coli O157:H7 was not isolated from milk taken from the bulk tank but it was isolated from individual milk samples (one milk jar and one fore-milk) from two animals previously shown to be faecal excretors of the organism. All isolates of E. coli O157:H7 obtained were of the same phage type, toxin genotype and plasmid profile.

The effectiveness of influenza vaccine in reducing hospital admissions for pneumonia, influenza, bronchitis, or emphysema was assessed by a case-control study of people aged 16 years and older who were admitted to 10 Leicestershire hospitals between 1 December 1989 and 31 January 1990. Hospital and general practitioners' records for 156 admissions (the cases) and 289 controls matched for age and sex were reviewed. Information was collected on demography, the usual place of residence (institutional or non-institutional), the existence of chronic illness, and vaccination during the 5 years before admission. The odds ratio for hospital admission among vaccinees was 0·67 (95% CI 0·39–1·12) giving an estimate of vaccine effectiveness in this setting of 33% (95% CI 0–61). However, multivariate logistic regression, adjusting for the effects of institutional care and chronic illness, revealed that influenza vaccination reduced hospital admissions by 63% (95% CI 17–84%). There was a strong trend towards improved vaccine effectiveness when used in institutional settings. Influenza vaccine is effective in reducing hospital admissions for influenza, pneumonia, bronchitis and emphysema, and effectiveness is comparable to that observed for influenza and pneumonia admissions in North America.

Variations in the sero-prevalence of antibody to brucella infection by cow, farm and area factors were investigated for three contrasting districts in Kenya: Samburu, an arid and pastoral area; Kiambu, a tropical highland area; and Kilifi, a typical tropical coastal area. Cattle were selected by a two-stage cluster sampling procedure and visited once between August 1991 and 1992.

Schall's algorithm, a statistical model suitable for multi-level analysis was used. Using this model, older age, free grazing and large herd size ([ges ] 31) were associated with higher seroprevalence. Also, significant farm-to-farm, area-to-area and district-to-district variations were estimated. The patterns of high risk districts and areas seen were consistent with known animal husbandry and movement risk factors, but the larger than expected farm-to-farm variation within high risk areas and districts could not be explained. Thus, a multi-level method provided additional information beyond conventional analyses of sero-prevalence data.

The prevalence of African horse sickness (AHS) serotypes in zebra foals from the Kruger National Park, South Africa was examined for possible associations between serotypes and to estimate the basic reproduction number, R0. The distributions of serotypes between zebra were not independent in the 6- and 7–8-month-old age classes (P < 0·005). This does not necessarily imply biological interactions between serotypes, as heterogeneity in host-vector transmission rates can generate non-independent distributions of serotypes. Both age and month of capture were significant factors in the number of serotypes infecting each zebra (P < 0·0001). Pairwise, positive associations between non-cross-reacting serotypes were found in the 7–8-month-old class only. For AHS overall, estimates of R0 ranged from 31–68. Assuming serotypes are transmitted independently, estimates of R0 for individual serotypes ranged from 10 for serotype 1 to 23 for serotype 6. The wide range of estimates emphasizes the need for a better understanding of serotype transmission and interactions in AHS.

Viruses from the recent epidemic of swine vesicular disease (SVD) in Europe have been isolated and characterized by antigenic and genetic methods to examine the likely epidemiological origins of the disease. Antigenic analysis was performed on 77 SVD viruses (SVDV) isolated in Europe between 1966 and 1994 using two panels of monoclonal antibodies (MAb) in a trapping ELISA. Genetic analysis of 33 of the SVD viruses by reverse transcription-polymerase chain-reaction (RT-PCR) amplification and nucleotide sequencing of the 1D (VP1) coding region was also performed. Comparison of the nucleotide sequences with each other and with three other previously published SVDV sequences revealed four distinct groups which correlated exactly with the results of the pattern of reactivity with MAbs. The first group consisted solely of the earliest SVD virus isolated (ITL/1/66) while the second group comprised viruses present in Europe and Japan between 1972 and 1981. The third group consisted of viruses isolated from outbreaks of SVD in Italy between December 1988 and June 1992. Viruses isolated between 1987 and 1994 from Romania, the Netherlands, Italy and Spain formed a fourth group. The genetic and antigenic similarity of the most recent virus isolates from Western Europe to a virus isolated in Romania 5 years previously suggests that the possible origin of the recent epidemic of swine vesicular disease in Western Europe was in Eastern Europe.

Cattle were vaccinated with differing doses of an equal mixture of capripox-rinderpest recombinant viruses expressing either the fusion protein (F) or the haemagglutinin protein (H) of rinderpest virus. Animals vaccinated with 2 × 104 p.f.u. or greater of the combined viruses were completely protected against challenge, 1 month later, with both virulent rinderpest and lumpy skin disease viruses. Vaccination with any of the doses did not induce any adverse clinical response in the animals or transmission of the vaccine virus between animals. All cattle challenged 6 or 12 months after vaccination with 2 × 105 p.f.u. of the mixture of recombinant viruses were protected from severe rinderpest disease. Ten out of 18 were completely protected while the remaining 8 developed mild clinical signs of rinderpest. Cattle vaccinated with the recombinant vaccines after prior infection with the parental capripox virus showed more marked clinical signs of rinderpest after challenge with virulent rinderpest, but 9 out of 10 recovered, compared with 80% mortality in the unvaccinated controls.

In order to evaluate prophylaxis and therapy for individuals infected with pathogens by the airborne route, we have designed and built a simple apparatus in which small laboratory animals may be exposed to aerosols of infectious microorganisms. Animals are kept in a chamber closed by a HEPA filter and exposed to the pathogen aerosolized using a Collison nebulizer. Air in the exposure chamber may be sampled to show that the infectious agent is present but the dose of agent must be expressed as 50% effective doses determined by titration. An effective dose may be defined by whatever criteria are chosen to judge disease. Using this apparatus we have shown that St Louis encephalitis (SLE) virus is infectious for mice by the airborne route. These data support the idea that there may be significant hazard to personnel exposed to aerosols of infectious SLE after a laboratory accident.