Several authors have proposed that granitic melt accumulation and transport from the source region occurs in networks of connected melt-filled veins and dykes. These models envisage the smallest leucosomes as ‘rivulets’ that connect to feed larger dykes that form the ‘rivers’ through which magma ascends through the sub-solidus crust. This paper critically reviews this ‘rivulets-feeding-rivers’ model. It is argued that such melt-filled networks are unlikely to develop in nature, because melt flows and accumulates well before a fully connected network can be established. In the alternative stepwise accumulation model, flow and accumulation is transient in both space and time. Observations on migmatites at Port Navalo, France, that were used to support the existence of melt-filled networks are discussed and reinterpreted. In this interpretation, the structures in these migmatites are consistent with the collapse and draining of individual melt batches, supporting the stepwise accumulation model.

This paper describes three mid-Tertiary intrusions from the Henry Mountains (Utah, USA) that were assembled from amalgamation of multiple horizontal sheet-like magma pulses in the absence of regional deformation. The three-dimensional intrusion geometries are exceptionally well preserved and include: (1) a highly lobate sill; (2) a laccolith; and (3) a bysmalith (a cylindrical, fault-bounded, piston-like laccolith). Individual intrusive sheets are recognised on the margins of the bodies by stacked lobate contacts, and within the intrusions by both intercalated sedimentary wallrock and formation of solid-state fabrics. Finally, conduits feeding these intrusions were mostly sub-horizontal and pipe-like, as determined by both direct observation and modelling of geophysical data.

%The intrusion geometries, in aggregate, are interpreted to reflect the time evolution of an idealised upper crustal pluton. These intrusions initiate as sills, evolve into laccoliths, and eventually become piston-like bysmaliths. The emplacement of multiple magma sheets was rapid and pulsed; the largest intrusion was assembled in less than 100 years. The magmatic fabrics are interpreted as recording the internal flow of the sheets preserved by fast cooling rates in the upper crust. Because there are multiple magma sheets, fabrics may vary vertically as different sheets are traversed. These bodies provide unambiguous evidence that some intrusions are emplaced in multiple pulses, and that igneous assembly can be highly heterogeneous in both space and time. The features diagnostic of pulsed assembly observed in these small intrusions can be easily destroyed in larger plutons, particularly in tectonically active regions.

The 532±5 Ma old Carion pluton is a dark, porphyritic ferro-potassic granitoid emplaced near the late Pan-African Angavo mega-shear zone. A rough normal zoning from tonalitic to granitic compositions can be recognised in the field. Steep magmatic foliations are evidenced by K-feldspar megacryst preferred orientations. Microstructures are either magmatic or typical of incipient solid-state deformation in near solidus conditions. Magnetic susceptibility magnitudes (K) range from 11 to 111×10−3 SI in the pluton and can be correlated to the petrography (highest K values in the tonalites; lowest K in the granites; granodiorites in between). The susceptibility magnitudes display a complex zoning pattern. Combined with the arrangement of magnetic foliation trajectories, it is possible to delineate four nested sub-units, regarded as four magmatic pulses successively emplaced from the west to the east of the pluton. The four pulses are characterised by very similar magma geochemistry, but variable magmatic differentiation. The highest degrees of magnetic susceptibility anisotropies (up to 1·6) are observed along internal contacts between sub-units and along the borders of the pluton. The magnetic lineations are also steeply plunging in some places in each sub-unit, possibly imaging the different feeder zones. Magma emplacement occurred at the end of the activity of the Angavo shear zone, hence avoiding re-orientation of the magmatic structures by the late Pan-African transcurrent tectonics. The diachronicity of the four magmatic pulses is consistent with previously determined palaeomagnetic data, because only the two older sub-units display a magnetic reversal sequence, whereas the two youngest sub-units lack any reversion. Emplacement of these four magmatic batches was responsible for a strain aureole and suggests a diapiric mode of ascent.

The anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) is widely and routinely used to measure the preferred orientations of Fe-rich minerals in undeformed and weakly deformed granite plutons. The interpretation of the mapped AMS fabrics depends on rock-textural observations, on the map patterns of the fabrics in plutons, and on comparisons of the pluton fabrics to tectonic structures in the country rocks. The AMS may document emplacement-flow related fabrics, but the emplacement fabrics may be reworked or completely overprinted by rather weak tectonic strains of the magma mush or the cooling pluton, especially in syntectonic intrusions. The Late Devonian Canso granite pluton is an excellent example of overprinting of emplacement fabrics by weak tectonic strains. The Canso pluton was emplaced ca. 370 Ma along the boundary between the Meguma and Avalon tectonic terranes, in the northern Appalachian orogen. The AMS was mapped along two traverses that cross the pluton and that are perpendicular to the terrane boundary. Textural evidence suggests the rocks underwent very modest post-full crystallisation strains. The AMS records the dextral transcurrent shearing that occurred on the terrane boundary during emplacement and cooling of the Canso pluton, supporting interpretations that weakly deformed syntectonic granites can be used as indicators of regional bulk kinematics. AMS fabrics in Late Devonian granites of the Meguma Terrane suggest partitioning of the non-coaxial shearing into the terrane bounding fault, with pure-shear dominated deformation further from the fault. Numerical simulations suggest that the kinematics recorded by the fabrics in the Canso pluton was simple-shear, or transpression or transpression with small components of pure shear oriented perpendicular to the bounding shear zone.

Though typically exhibiting considerable scatter, geochemical variations in granitic plutons and silicic volcanic deposits are commonly modelled as products of differentiation of originally homogeneous magmas. However, many silicic igneous bodies, particularly those classified as S-types, are internally heterogeneous in their mineralogy, geochemistry and isotope ratios, on scales from hundreds of metres down to one metre or less. The preservation of these heterogeneities supports recent models for the construction of granitic magma bodies through incremental additions of numerous batches (pulses) of magma derived from contrasting sources. Such pulses result from the sequential nature of the melting reactions and the commonly layered structure of crustal magma sources. Internal differentiation of these batches occurs, but not generally on the scales of whole magma chambers. Rather than being created through differentiation or hybridisation processes, at or near emplacement levels, much of the variation within such bodies (e.g. trace-element or Mg# variation with SiO2 or isotope ratios) is a primary or near-source feature. At emplacement levels, the relatively high magma viscosities and slow diffusion rates of many chemical components in silicic melts probably inhibit processes that would lead to homogenisation. This permits at least partial preservation of the primary heterogeneities.

The causes of compositional diversity in the Tuolumne Batholith, whether source heterogeneity, magma mixing, or fractional crystallisation, is a matter of longstanding debate. This paper presents data from detailed mapping and a microstructural and major element, trace element and isotopic study of an elongate lobe of the Half Dome granodiorite that protrudes from the southern end of the batholith. The lobe is normally zoned from quartz diorite along the outer margin to high-silica leucogranite in the core. Contacts are steep and gradational, except for the central leucogranite contact, which is locally sharp: magmatic fabrics overprint contacts. A striking feature of the lobe is the 18 wt SiO2 range comparable to that observed for the entire Tuolumne Batholith. Feldspar-compatible elements (Sr and Ba) decrease towards the centre, while Rb increases. Light and middle REEs show a smooth decrease towards the centre of the lobe. Calculated initial isotopic ratios of 87Sr/86Sr(i) and εNd(t) have identical values within error across the lobe, except in the central leucogranite, the most silica rich phase, which shows a slightly more crustal signature. Field, structural, geochemical and isotopic data suggest that fractionation was the dominant process causing compositional variation in this lobe. It is envisioned that this fractionation/crystal sorting occurred in a vertically flowing and evolving magma column with the present map pattern representing a cross-section of this column. Thus the areal extent of the lobe represents a minimum size of interconnected melt at the emplacement level of the Tuolumne Batholith and, given its marginal position, limited width and proximity to colder host rocks, implies that fractionation in larger chambers likely occurred in the main Tuolumne Batholith magma chamber(s).

The potential of igneous quartz for providing a better understanding of magmatic processes is demonstrated by studying late-Hercynian rhyolites and granites from central and western Europe. Cathodoluminescence (CL) reveals growth patterns and alteration structures within igneous quartz reflecting the magma crystallisation history. The relatively stable and blue-dominant CL of zoned phenocrysts is principally related to variations in the Ti concentration, which is a function of the crystallisation temperature. The Al/Ti ratio of igneous quartz increases with progressive magma differentiation, as Ti is more compatible, compared to Al, Li, K, Ge, B, Fe, P during magma evolution. The red-dominant CL of the anhedral groundmass quartz in granite is unstable during electron bombardment and associated with OH- and H2O-bearing lattice defects. Thus, CL properties of quartz are different for rocks formed from H2O-poor and H2O-rich melts. Both groundmass and phenocrysts in granites are rich in alteration structures as a result of interaction with deuteric fluids during cooling, whereas phenocrysts in extrusive rocks do not usually contain such structures. The combined study of trace elements along with the analysis of quartz textures and melt inclusion inventories may reveal detailed PTX-paths of granite magmas. This study shows that quartz is a sensitive indicator for physico-chemical changes during the evolution of silicarich magmas. Common growth textures show a wide variety in quartz phenocrysts in rhyolites and some granites. This paper presents a classification of textures, which formed as a result of heterogeneous intra-granular lattice defects and impurities. The alternation of growth and resorption microtextures reflects stepwise adiabatic and non-adiabatic magma ascent, temporary storage of magma in reservoirs and mixing with more mafic, hotter magma. The anhedral groundmass quartz overgrowing early-magmatic phenocrysts in granites is free of growth zoning.

Trace element abundances in garnet from a polyphase migmatite were measured by secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) in order to identify some of the effective variables on the trace element distribution between garnet and melanosome or leucosome. In general, garnet is zoned with respect to REE, in which garnet cores are enriched by a factor of 2–3 relative to the rims. For an inclusion-rich garnet from the melanosome, equilibrium distribution following a simple Rayleigh fractionation is responsible for the decreasing concentrations in REE from core to rim. Inclusion-poor garnet from the same melanosome located in the vicinity of the leucosomes shows distinct enrichment and depletion patterns for REE from core to rim. These features suggest disequilibrium between garnet and the host rock which, in this case, could have been an in-situ derived melt. This would probably indicate a period of open-system behaviour at a time when the garnet, originally nucleated in the metamorphic environment reacted with the melt. In addition, non-gradual variation in trace element abundances between core and rim may suggest variable garnet growth rates. Inclusion-free garnet from the leucosome, interpreted to have crystallised in the presence of a melt, has a small core with high REE abundances and a broad rim with lower REE abundances. Here, crystal-liquid diffusion-controlled partitioning is a likely process to explain the trace element variation.

India–Asia collision resulted in crustal thickening and shortening, metamorphism and partial melting along the 2200 km-long Himalayan range. In the core of the Greater Himalaya, widespread in situ partial melting in sillimanite+K-feldspar gneisses resulted in formation of migmatites and Ms+Bt+Grt+Tur±Crd±Sil leucogranites, mainly by muscovite dehydration melting. Melting occurred at shallow depths (4–6 kbar; 15–20 km depth) in the middle crust, but not in the lower crust. 87Sr/86Sr ratios of leucogranites are very high (0·74–0·79) and heterogeneous, indicating a 100 crustal protolith. Melts were sourced from fertile muscovite-bearing pelites and quartzo-feldspathic gneisses of the Neo-Proterozoic Haimanta–Cheka Formations. Melting was induced through a combination of thermal relaxation due to crustal thickening and from high internal heat production rates within the Proterozoic source rocks in the middle crust. Himalayan granites have highly radiogenic Pb isotopes and extremely high uranium concentrations. Little or no heat was derived either from the mantle or from shear heating along thrust faults. Mid-crustal melting triggered southward ductile extrusion (channel flow) of a mid-crustal layer bounded by a crustal-scale thrust fault and shear zone (Main Central Thrust; MCT) along the base, and a low-angle ductile shear zone and normal fault (South Tibetan Detachment; STD) along the top. Multi-system thermochronology (U–Pb, Sm–Nd, 40Ar–39Ar and fission track dating) show that partial melting spanned ̃24–15 Ma and triggered mid-crustal flow between the simultaneously active shear zones of the MCT and STD. Granite melting was restricted in both time (Early Miocene) and space (middle crust) along the entire length of the Himalaya. Melts were channelled up via hydraulic fracturing into sheeted sill complexes from the underthrust Indian plate source beneath southern Tibet, and intruded for up to 100 km parallel to the foliation in the host sillimanite gneisses. Crystallisation of the leucogranites was immediately followed by rapid exhumation, cooling and enhanced erosion during the Early–Middle Miocene.

The Murotomisaki Gabbroic Intrusion is a sill-like layered gabbro emplaced in sedimentary strata of Tertiary age in southwest Japan. The zoning (including resorption structures) and the compositional variations of plagioclase from throughout the intrusion were studied, and it was found that the zoning pattern may be classified into four types, which may well correlated with the hosting rock types, the mode of occurrences and their stratigraphic positions in the intrusion. The plagioclase zoning was successfully decoded, and the sequence of events that took place during the magmatic differentiation was deduced and further interpreted in the context of a stratified basal boundary layer slowly ascending in a solidifying magma body. It was shown that various layered structures – modal layering, podiform gabbroic pegmatites and anorthositic layers – observed in the Murotomisaki Gabbro were formed within the moving basal boundary layer by flushing of H2O-rich fluid and fractionated silicate melts from below. By the fluxing of hydrous fluids, plagioclase crystals preferentially dissolved and then melt fraction increased in the basal boundary layer. Under these circumstances, plagioclase-rich fractionated melts diapirically segregated from the crystal pile. Calcic plagioclases, which are out of equilibrium in the central part of the intrusion, may have originated from the basal boundary layer in this manner.