Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7fkt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-25T07:11:26.880Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Perceived discrimination, serotonin transporter linked polymorphic region status, and the development of conduct problems

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 April 2011

Gene H. Brody ,
Steven R. H. Beach ,
Yi-Fu Chen ,
Ezemenari Obasi ,
Robert A. Philibert ,
Steven M. Kogan  and
Ronald L. Simons
Gene H. Brody*
Affiliation:
University of Georgia Emory University
Steven R. H. Beach
Affiliation:
University of Georgia
Yi-Fu Chen
Affiliation:
University of Georgia
Ezemenari Obasi
Affiliation:
University of Georgia
Robert A. Philibert
Affiliation:
University of Iowa
Steven M. Kogan
Affiliation:
University of Georgia
Ronald L. Simons
Affiliation:
University of Georgia
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Gene H. Brody, Center for Family Research, University of Georgia, 1095 College Station Road, Athens, GA 30605-4527; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This study examined the prospective relations of adolescents' perceptions of discrimination and their genetic status with increases in conduct problems. Participants were 461 African American youths residing in rural Georgia (Wave 1 mean age = 15.5 years) who provided three waves of data and a saliva sample from which a polymorphism in the SCL6A4 (serotonin transporter [5-HTT]) gene polymorphism known as the 5-HTT linked promoter region (5-HTTLPR) was genotyped. Data analyses using growth curve modeling indicated that perceived discrimination was significantly related to the slope of conduct problems. As hypothesized, interactions between perceived discrimination and genetic status emerged for male but not female youths. Compared with those carrying two copies of the long allele variant of 5-HTTLPR, male youths carrying one or two copies of its short allele variant evinced higher rates of conduct problems over time when they perceived high levels of racial discrimination. These findings are consistent with resilience and differential susceptibility propositions stating that genes can both foster sensitivity to adverse events and confer protection from those events.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 23 , Issue 2 , May 2011 , pp. 617 - 627
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Battaglia, M., Ogliari, A., Zanoni, A., Citterio, A., Pozzoli, U., Giorda, R., et al. (2005). Influence of the serotonin transporter promoter gene and shyness on children's cerebral responses to facial expressions. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 85–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beevers, C. G., Wells, T. T., Ellis, A. J., & McGeary, J. E. (2009). Association of the serotonin transporter gene promoter region (5-HTTLPR) polymorphism with biased attention for emotional stimuli. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 670–681.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belsky, J., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2007). For better and for worse: Differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 300–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boatright, S. R. (2005). The Georgia county guide (24th ed.). Athens, GA: Center for Agribusiness and Economic Development.Google Scholar
Bradley, S. L., Dodelzon, K., Sandhu, H. K., & Philibert, R. A. (2005). Relationship of serotonin transporter gene polymorphisms and haplotypes to mRNA transcription. American Journal of Medical Genetics: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 136B, 58–61.Google ScholarPubMed
Brody, G. H., Beach, S. R. H., & Philibert, R. A. (in press). A contextual–genetics approach to adolescent drug use and sexual risk behavior. In Thomas, Y. F. & Price, L. N. (Eds.), Drug use trajectories among minority youth. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Brody, G. H., Chen, Y.-f., Murry, V. M., Ge, X., Simons, R. L., Gibbons, F. X., et al. (2006). Perceived discrimination and the adjustment of African American youths: A five-year longitudinal analysis with contextual moderation effects. Child Development, 77, 1170–1189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brody, G. H., Murry, V. M., Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F. X., Molgaard, V., McNair, L. D., et al. (2004). The Strong African American Families program: Translating research into prevention programming. Child Development, 75, 900–917.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brody, G. H., Murry, V. M., Kogan, S. M., Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F. X., Molgaard, V., et al. (2006). The Strong African American Families program: A cluster-randomized prevention trial of long-term effects and a mediational model. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 356–366.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U., & Ceci, S. J. (1994). Nature–nurture reconceptualized in developmental perspective: A bioecological model. Psychological Review, 101, 568–586.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brummett, B. H., Boyle, S. H., Siegler, I. C., Kuhn, C. M., Ashley-Koch, A., Jonassaint, C. R., et al. (2008). Effects of environmental stress and gender on associations among symptoms of depression and the serotonin transporter gene linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR). Behavior Genetics, 38, 34–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Caspi, A., Hariri, A. R., Holmes, A., Uher, R., & Moffitt, T. E. (2010). Genetic sensitivity to the environment: The case of the serotonin transporter gene and its implications for studying complex diseases and traits. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 509–527.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caspi, A., Sugden, K., Moffitt, T. E., Taylor, A., Craig, I. W., Harrington, H., et al. (2003). Influence of life stress on depression: Moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene. Science, 301, 386–389.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Blender, J. A. (2006). A multiple-levels-of-analysis perspective on resilience: Implications for the developing brain, neural plasticity, and preventive interventions. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 248–258.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Tucker, D. (1994). Development and self-regulatory structures of the mind. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 533–549.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, R., Anderson, N. B., Clark, V. R., & Williams, D. R. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model. American Psychologist, 54, 805–816.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davison, G. C., Neale, J. M., Blankstein, K. R., & Flett, G. L. (2005). Abnormal psychology (2nd ed.). Ontario, Canada: Wiley Canada.Google Scholar
DuBois, D. L., Burk-Braxton, C., Swenson, L. P., Tevendale, H. D., & Hardesty, J. L. (2002). Race and gender influences on adjustment in early adolescence: Investigation of an integrative model. Child Development, 73, 1573–1592.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eley, T. C., Sugden, K., Corsico, A., Gregory, A. M., Sham, P., McGuffin, P., et al. (2004). Gene–environment interaction analysis of serotonin system markers with adolescent depression. Molecular Psychiatry, 9, 908–915.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elliott, D. S., Ageton, S. S., & Huizinga, D. (1985). Explaining delinquency and drug use. Beverly Hills, CA: Siegel.Google Scholar
Farber, E. A., & Egeland, B. (1987). Invulnerability among abused and neglected children. In Anthony, E. J. & Cohler, B. J. (Eds.), The invulnerable child (pp. 253–288). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Fordham, S., & Ogbu, J. U. (1986). Black students' school success: Coping with the burden of “acting White.” Urban Review, 18, 176–206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Franklin, A. J. (1993, July/August). The invisibility syndrome. Family Therapy Networker, 32–39.Google Scholar
Gibbons, F. X., Gerrard, M., Cleveland, M. J., Wills, T. A., & Brody, G. H. (2004). Perceived discrimination and substance use in African American parents and their children: A panel study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 517–529.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunthert, K. C., Conner, T. S., Armeli, S., Tennen, H., Covault, J., & Kranzler, H. R. (2007). Serotonin transporter gene polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) and anxiety reactivity in daily life: A daily process approach to gene–environment interaction. Psychosomatic Medicine, 69, 762–768.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hammen, C. (2003). Risk and protective factors for children of depressed parents. In Luthar, S. S. (Ed.), Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hariri, A. R., Drabant, E. M., Munoz, K. E., Kolachana, B. S., Mattay, V. S., Egan, M. F., et al. (2005). A susceptibility gene for affective disorders and the response of the human amygdala. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 146–152.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hariri, A. R., Drabant, E. M., & Weinberger, D. R. (2006). Imaging genetics: Perspectives from studies of genetically driven variation in serotonin function and corticolimbic affective processing. Biological Psychiatry, 59, 888–897.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hariri, A. R., Mattay, V. S., Tessitore, A., Fera, F., & Weinberger, D. R. (2003). Neocortical modulation of the amygdala response to fearful stimuli. Biological Psychiatry, 53, 494–501.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hariri, A. R., Mattay, V. S., Tessitore, A., Kolachana, B. S., Fera, F., Goldman, D., et al. (2002). Serotonin transporter genetic variation and the response of the human amygdala. Science, 297, 400–403.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heinz, A., Braus, D. F., Smolka, M. N., Wrase, J., Puls, I., Hermann, D., et al. (2005). Amygdala–prefrontal coupling depends on a genetic variation of the serotonin transporter. Nature Neuroscience, 8, 20–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heinz, A., Smolka, M. N., Braus, D. F., Wrase, J., Beck, A., Flor, H., et al. (2007). Serotonin transporter genotype (5-HTTLPR): Effects of neutral and undefined conditions on amygdala activation. Biological Psychiatry, 61, 1011–1014.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hensch, T., Wargelius, H.-L., Herold, U., Lesch, K. P., Oreland, L., & Brocke, B. (2006). Further evidence for an association of 5-HTTLPR with intensity dependence of auditory-evoked potentials. Neuropsychopharmacology, 31, 2047–2054.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hetherington, E. M. (1989). Coping with family transitions: Winners, losers, and survivors. Child Development, 60, 1–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Howe, G. W., Beach, S. R. H., & Brody, G. H. (2010). Microtrial methods for translating gene–environment dynamics into preventive interventions. Prevention Science, 11, 343–354.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Isenberg, N., Silbersweig, D., Engelien, A., Emmerich, S., Malavade, K., Beattie, B., et al. (1999). Linguistic threat activates the human amygdala. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 19, 10456–10459.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kendler, K. S., & Eaves, L. J. (1986). Models for the joint effect of genotype and environment on liability to psychiatric illness. American Journal of Psychiatry, 143, 279–289.Google ScholarPubMed
Kim-Cohen, J., & Gold, A. L. (2009). Measured gene–environment interactions and mechanisms promoting resilient development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 138–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Landrine, H., & Klonoff, E. A. (1996). The Schedule of Racist Events: A measure of racial discrimination and a study of its negative physical and mental health consequences. Journal of Black Psychology, 22, 144–168.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lazary, J., Lazary, A., Gonda, X., Benko, A., Molnar, E., Juhasz, G., et al. (2008). New evidence for the association of the serotonin transporter gene (SCL6A4) haplotypes, threatening life events, and depressive phenotype. Biological Psychiatry, 64, 498–504.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lerner, R. M. (1991). Changing organism–context relations as the basic process of development: A developmental context and perspective. Developmental Psychology, 27, 27–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luthar, S. S. (2006). Resilience in development: A synthesis of research across five decades. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 3. Risk, disorder, and adaptation (2nd ed., pp. 739–795). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life-course persistent antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674–701.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., & Rutter, M. L. (2006). Measured gene–environment interactions in psychopathology: Concepts, research strategies, and implications for research, intervention, and public understanding of genetics. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 5–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Munafò, M. R., Brown, S. M., & Hariri, A. R. (2008). Serotonin transporter (5-HTTLPR) genotype and amygdala activation: A meta-analysis. Biological Psychiatry, 63, 852–857.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Osinsky, R., Reuter, M., Küpper, Y., Schmitz, A., Kozyra, E., Alexander, N., et al. (2008). Variation in the serotonin transporter gene modulates selective attention to threat. Emotion, 8, 584–588.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patrick, D. L., Cheadle, A., Thompson, D. C., Diehr, P., Koepsell, T., & Kinne, S. (1994). The validity of self-reported smoking: A review and meta-analysis. American Journal of Public Health, 84, 1086–1093.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Philibert, R. A., Zadorozhnyaya, O., Beach, S. R. H., & Brody, G. H. (2008). Comparison of the genotyping results using DNA obtained from blood and saliva. Psychiatric Genetics, 18, 275–281.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Retz, W., Freitag, C. M., Retz-Junginger, P., Wenzler, D., Schneider, M., Kissling, C., et al. (2008). A functional serotonin transporter promoter gene polymorphism increases ADHD symptoms in delinquents: Interaction with adverse childhood environment. Psychiatry Research, 158, 123–131.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Risch, N., Herrell, R., Lehner, T., Liang, K.-Y., Eaves, L. J., Hoh, J., et al. (2009). Interaction between the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR), stressful life events, and risk of depression: A meta-analysis. Journal of the American Medical Association, 301, 2462–2471.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M. L. (1990). Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. In Rolf, J., Masten, A. S., Cicchetti, D., Nuechterlein, K., & Weintraub, S. (Eds.), Risk and protective factors in the development of psychopathology (pp. 181–215). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Rutter, M. L., & Silberg, J. (2002). Gene–environment interplay in relation to emotional and behavioral disturbance. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 463–490.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sellers, R. M., Copeland-Linder, N., Martin, P. P., & Lewis, R. L. H. (2006). Racial identity matters: The relationship between racial discrimination and psychological functioning in African American adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16, 187–216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simons, R. L., Chen, Y.-f., Stewart, E. A., & Brody, G. H. (2003). Incidents of discrimination and risk for delinquency: A longitudinal test of strain theory with an African American sample. Justice Quarterly, 20, 827–854.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simons, R. L., Murry, V. M., McLoyd, V. C., Lin, K.-H., Cutrona, C. E., & Conger, R. D. (2002). Discrimination, crime, ethnic identity, and parenting as correlates of depressive symptoms among African American children: A multilevel analysis. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 371–393.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simons, R. L., Simons, L. G., Burt, C. H., Drummund, H., Stewart, E. A., Brody, G. H., et al. (2006). Supportive parenting moderates the effect of discrimination upon anger, hostile view of relationships, and violence among African American boys. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 47, 373–389.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Singer, J. D., & Willett, J. B. (2003). Applied longitudinal data analysis: Modeling change and event occurrence. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slavin, L. A., Rainer, K. L., McCreary, M. L., & Gowda, K. K. (1991). Toward a multicultural model of the stress process. Journal of Counseling and Development, 70, 156–163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stein, M. B., Schork, N. J., & Gelernter, J. (2008). Gene-by-environment (serotonin transporter and childhood maltreatment) interaction for anxiety sensitivity, an intermediate phenotype for anxiety disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology, 33, 312–319.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Surtees, P. G., Wainwright, N. W. J., Willis-Owen, S. A. G., Luben, R., Day, N. E., & Flint, J. (2006). Social adversity, the serotonin transporter (5-HTTLPR) polymorphism and major depressive disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 59, 224–229.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Szalacha, L. A., Erkut, S., García Coll, C. T., Fields, J. P., Alarcón, O., & Ceder, I. (2003). Perceived discrimination and resilience. In Luthar, S. S. (Ed.), Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities (pp. 414–435). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Taylor, D. M., Wright, S. C., & Porter, L. E. (1993). Dimensions of perceived discrimination: The personal/group discrimination discrepancy. In Zanna, M. P. & Olson, J. M. (Eds.), The psychology of prejudice: The Ontario Symposium (Vol. 7, pp. 233–255). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Taylor, S. E., Way, B. M., Welch, W. T., Hilmert, C. J., Lehman, B. J., & Eisenberger, N. I. (2006). Early family environment, current adversity, the serotonin transporter promoter polymorphism, and depressive symptomatology. Biological Psychiatry, 60, 671–676.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Teichner, G., & Golden, C. J. (2000). The relationship of neuropsychological impairment to conduct disorder in adolescence: A conceptual review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 5, 509–528.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thoits, P. A. (1991). On merging identity theory and stress research. Social Psychology Quarterly, 54, 101–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wicks-Nelson, R., & Israel, A. C. (2003). Behavior disorders of childhood (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.Google Scholar
Wilhelm, K., Mitchell, P. B., Niven, H., Finch, A. W., Wedgwood, L., Scimone, A., et al. (2006). Life events, first depression onset and the serotonin transporter gene. British Journal of Psychiatry, 188, 210–215.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zalsman, G., Huang, Y.-y., Oquendo, M. A., Burke, A. K., Hu, X.-z., Brent, D. A., et al. (2006). Association of a triallelic serotonin transporter gene promoter region (5-HTTLPR) polymorphism with stressful life events and severity of depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 1588–1593.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zucker, R. A., Wong, M. W., Puttler, L. I., & Fitzgerald, H. E. (2003). Resilience and vulnerability among sons of alcoholics: Relationship to developmental outcomes between early childhood and adolescence. In Luthar, S. S. (Ed.), Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities (pp. 76–103). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar