Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-lj6df Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-05T19:44:55.419Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Resilience in children threatened by extreme adversity: Frameworks for research, practice, and translational synergy

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 April 2011

Ann S. Masten
Ann S. Masten*
Affiliation:
University of Minnesota
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Ann S. Masten, Institute of Child Development, 51 East River Parkway, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article delineates parallel frameworks that grew out of the research on risk and resilience over the past four decades, a framework for research and a framework for practice, and then discusses the promise of an emerging synthesis. The research framework defined the meaning, models, and methods that successfully guided four waves of research to date on the nature and processes involved in human resilience. The applied framework emerged in response to urgent needs of children and families faced by adversity and those charged with helping them, resulting in guidelines for translating the unfolding but incomplete research evidence into action. The application of a resilience approach transformed practice in many fields concerned with promoting resilience in people at risk for problems, revolutionizing the mission, models, measures, and methods of practice to align with the emphasis on positive adaptation and strengths defining a resilience-based approach. Yet these interventions rarely translated back to inform and refine resilience theory in ways that would accelerate progress to promote resilience more effectively. The concluding section on translational synergy discusses the potential for a synthesis of basic and applied resilience frameworks as the next steps toward realizing the original objective and promise of resilience science.

Type
Special Section Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 23 , Issue 2 , May 2011 , pp. 493 - 506
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Akos, P., & Galassi, J. P. (2008). Special issue: Strengths-based school counseling. Professional School Counseling, 12, 66–181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
American School Counselor Association. (2004). ASCA national standards for students. Alexandria, VA: Author.Google Scholar
Anthony, E. J., & Koupernik, C. (Eds.). (1974). The child in his family: Children at psychiatric risk. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Bergman, L. A., & Magnusson, D. (1997). A person-oriented approach in research on developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 291–319.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bonanno, G. A. (2004). Loss, trauma, and human resilience: Have we under-estimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events? American Psychologist, 59, 20–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, G. W., & Harris, T. O. (1978). Social origins of depression. New York: Free Press.Google ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D. (2010). Resilience under conditions of extreme stress: A multilevel perspective. World Psychiatry, 9, 145–154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Curtis, W. J. (2006). The developing brain and neural plasticity: Implications for noamlity, psychopathology, and resilience. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 2. Developmental neuroscience (2nd ed., pp. 1–64). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Curtis, W. J. (2007). A multilevel approach to resilience [Special Issue]. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 627–955.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., Rappaport, J., Sandler, I., & Weissberg, R. P. (Eds.). (2000). The promotion of wellness in children and adolescents. Washington, DC: CWLA Press.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (1997). The role of self-organization in the promotion of resilience in maltreated children. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 629–647.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2000). Developmental processes in maltreated children. In Hansen, D. (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation: Vol. 46. Child Maltreatment (pp. 85–160). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Coddington, R. D. (1972). The significance of life events as etiologic factors in the diseases of children II: A study of a normal population. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 16, 205–213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coie, J. D., Watt, N. F., West, S. G., Hawkins, J. D., Asarnow, J. R., Markman, H. J., et al. (1973). The science of prevention: A conceptual framework and some directions for a national research program. American Psychologist, 48, 1013–1022.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Curtis, J., & Cicchetti, D. (2003). Moving resilience on resilience into the 21st century: Theoretical and methodological considerations in examining the biological contributors to resilience. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 773–810.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dodge, K. A., Malone, P., Lansford, J. E., Miller, S., Pettit, G. S., & Bates, J. E. (2009). A dynamic cascade model of the development of substance-use onset. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 74(Serial No. 294), 1–120.Google ScholarPubMed
Feder, A., Nestler, E. J., & Charney, D. S. (2009). Psychobiology and molecular genetics of resilience. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10, 446–457.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Flynn, R. J., Dudding, P. M., & Barber, J. G. (Eds.). (2006). Promoting resilience in development: A general framework for systems of care. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press.Google Scholar
Galassi, J. P., & Akos, P. (2007). Stength-based school counseling: Promoting student development and achievement. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Garmezy, N. (1973). Competence and adaptation in adult schizophrenic patients and children at risk. In Dean, S. R. (Ed.), Schizophrenia: The first ten Dean Award Lectures (pp. 168–204). New York: M. S. S. Information Corporation.Google Scholar
Garmezy, N. (1983). Stressors of childhood. In Garmezy, N. & Rutter, M. (Eds.), Stress, coping and development (pp. 43–84). New York: McGraw–Hill.Google Scholar
Garmezy, N. (1985). Stress-resistant children: The search for protective factors. In Stevenson, J. E. (Ed.), Recent research in developmental psychopathology: Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry book supplement 4 (pp. 213–233). Oxford: Pergamon Press.Google Scholar
Garmezy, N., Masten, A. S., & Tellegen, A. (1984). The study of stress and competence in children: A building block for developmental psychology. Child Development, 55, 97–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garmezy, N., & Nuechterlein, K. (1972). Invulnerable children: The fact and fiction of competence and disadvantage. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 42, 328–329.Google Scholar
Garmezy, N., & Rutter, M. (1983). Stress, coping and development in children. New York: McGraw–Hill.Google Scholar
Garmezy, N., & Streitman, S. (1974). Children at risk: The search for the antecedents to schizophrenia: Part 1. Conceptual models and research methods. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 8, 14–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gest, S. D., Reed, M., & Masten, A. S. (1999). Measuring developmental changes in exposure to adversity: A life chart and rating scale approach. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 171–192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gottesman, I. I. (1974). Developmental genetics and ongenetic psychology: Overdue detente and propositions from a matchmaker. In Pick, A. D. (Ed.), Minnestoa Symposium on Child Psychology (Vol. 8, pp. 55–80). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Greenberg, M. T. (2006). Promoting resilience in children and youth: Preventive interventions and their interface with neuroscience. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 139–150.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hawkins, J. D., & Catalano, R. F. (1992). Communities that Care: Action for drug abuse. San Francisco, CA: Jossey–Bass.Google Scholar
Heckman, J. J. (2006). Skill formation and the economics of investing in disadvantaged children. Science, 312, 1900–1902.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herbers, J. E., Cutuli, J. J., Lafavor, T. L., Vrieze, D., Leibel, C., Obradović, J., & Masten, A. S. (2011). Direct and indirect effects of parenting on academic functioning of young homeless children. Early Education and Development, 22, 77–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holmes, T. H., & Rahe, R. H. (1967). The social readjustment rating scale. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 11, 213–218.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hubbard, J. (1997). Adaptive functioning and post-traumatic symptoms in adolescent survivors of massive childhood trauma. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota.Google Scholar
Hubbard, J., Realmuto, G. M., Northwood, A. K., & Masten, A. S. (1995). Comorbidity of psychiatric diagnoses with post-traumatic stress disorder in survivors of childhood trauma. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 1167–1173.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Longstaff, P. H. 2009. Managing surprises in complex systems: Multidisciplinary perspectives on resilience [Editorial]. Ecology and Society, 14, Article 49. Retrieved from http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol14/iss1/art49/CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luthar, S. S. (2006). Resilience in development: A synthesis of research across five decades. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 3. Risk, disorder, and adaptation (2nd ed., pp. 739–795). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Luthar, S. S., & Cicchetti, D. (2000). The construct of resilience: Implications for interventions and social policies. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 857–885.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luthar, S., Cicchetti, D., & Becker, B. (2000). The construct of resilience: A critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. Child Development, 71, 543–562.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Madden, S. H., & Basting, A. D. (2010). Healthy aging persons and their brains: Promoting resilience through creative engagement. Clinic on Geriatric Medicine, 26, 149–161.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masten, A. S. (1989). Resilience in development: Implications of the study of successful adaptation for developmental psychopathology. In Cicchetti, D. (Ed.), Rochester Symposium on Developmental Psychopathology: Vol. 1. The emergence of a discipline (pp. 261–294). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Masten, A. S. (1999). Resilience comes of age: Reflections on the past and outlook for the next generation of research. In Glantz, M. D. & Johnson, J. L. (Eds.), Resilience and development: Positive life adaptations (pp. 281–296). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist, 56, 227–238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S. (2006). Promoting resilience in development: A general framework for systems of care. In Flynn, R. J., Dudding, P., & Barber, J. G. (Eds.), Promoting resilience in child welfare (3–17). Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press.Google Scholar
Masten, A. S. (2007). Resilience in developing systems: Progress and promise as the fourth wave rises. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 921–930.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S. (in press). Risk and resilience in development. In Zelazo, P. D. (Ed.), Oxford handbook of developmental psychology. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Masten, A. S., Best, K. M., & Garmezy, N. (1990). Resilience and development: Contributions from the study of children who overcome adversity. Development and Psychopathology, 2, 425–444.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masten, A. S., Burt, K. B., & Coatsworth, J. D. (2006). Competence and psychopathology in development. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 3. Risk, disorder and psychopathology (2nd ed., 696–738). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Masten, A. S., Burt, K., Roisman, G. I., Obradović, J., Long, J. D., & Tellegen, A. (2004). Resources and resilience in the transition to adulthood: Continuity and change. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 1071–1094.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S., & Cicchetti, D. (Eds.). (2010a). Developmental cascades. Part 1 [Special Issue]. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 491–715.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masten, A. S., & Cicchetti, D. (2010b). Developmental cascades [Editorial]. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 491–495.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S., & Cicchetti, D. (Eds.). (2010c). Developmental cascades. Part 2 [Special Issue]. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 717–983.Google Scholar
Masten, A. S., & Coatsworth, J. D. (1998). The development of competence in favorable and unfavorable environments: Lessons from successful children. American Psychologist, 53, 205–220.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S., Coatsworth, J. D., Neemann, J., Gest, S. D., Tellegen, A., & Garmezy, N. (1995). The structure and coherence of competence from childhood through adolescence. Child Development, 66, 1635–1659.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S., & Curtis, W. J. (2000). Integrating competence and psychopathology: Pathways toward a comprehensive science of adaptation in development. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 529–550.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masten, A. S., Garmezy, N., Tellegen, A., Pellegrini, D. S., Larkin, K., & Larsen, A. (1988). Competence and stress in school children: The moderating effects of individual and family qualities. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 29, 745–764.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S., Herbers, J. E., Cutuli, J. J., & Lafavor, T. L. (2008). Promoting competence and resilience in the school context. Professional School Counseling, 12, 76–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masten, A. S., Hubbard, J. J., Gest, S. D., Tellegen, A., Garmezy, N., & Ramirez, M. L. (1999). Competence in the context of adversity: Pathways to resilience and maladaptation from childhood to late adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 143–169.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S., Miliotis, D., Graham-Bermann, S., Ramirez, M., & Neemann, J. (1993). Children in homeless families: Risks to mental health and development. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, 335–343.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S., Monn, A. R., & Supkoff, L. M. (in press). Resilience in children and adolescents. In Southwick, S. M., Litz, B., Charney, D., & Friedman, M. J. (Eds.), Resiliency in psychiatric clinical practice. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Masten, A. S., Morison, P., & Pellegrini, D. S. (1985). A revised class play method of peer assessment. Developmental Psychology, 21, 523–533.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masten, A. S., Neemann, J., & Andenas, S. (1994). Life events and adjustment in adolescents: The significance of event independence, desirability, and chronicity. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 4, 71–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masten, A. S., & Obradović, J. (2006). Competence and resilience in development. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 13–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S., & Obradović, J. (2008). Disaster preparation and recovery: Lessons from research on resilience in human development. Ecology and Society, 13, Article 9. Retrieved from http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol13/iss1/art9/CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masten, A. S., Obradović, J., & Burt, K. (2006). Resilience in emerging adulthood: Developmental perspectives on continuity and transformation. In Arnett, J. J. & Tanner, J. L. (Eds.), Emerging adults in America: Coming of age in the 21st century (pp. 173–190). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masten, A. S., & O'Connor, M. J. (1989). Vulnerability, stress, and resilience in the early development of a high risk child. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, 274–278.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S., & Osofsky, J. (2010). Disasters and their impact on child development: Introduction to the special section. Child Development, 81, 1029–1039.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masten, A. S., & Powell, J. L. (2003). A resilience framework for research, policy, and practice. In Luthar, S. S. (Ed.), Resilience and vulnerabilities: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities (pp. 1–25). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Masten, A. S., & Reed, M.-G. (2002). Resilience in development. In Snyder, C. R. & Lopez, S. J. (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 74–88). London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Masten, A. S., Roisman, G. I., Long, J. D., Burt, K. B., Obradović, J., Riley, J. R., et al. (2005). Developmental cascades: Linking academic achievement, externalizing and internalizing symptoms over 20 years. Developmental Psychology, 41, 733–746.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S., & Sesma, A. (1999). Risk and resilience among children homeless in Minneapolis. CURA Reporter, 29, 1–6. Retrieved from http://www.cura.umn.edu/reporter/99-Jan/article1.pdfGoogle Scholar
Masten, A. S., & Shaffer, A. (2006). How families matter in child development: Reflections from research on risk and resilience. In Clarke-Stewart, A. & Dunn, J. (Eds.), Families count: Effects on child and adolescent development (pp. 5–25). New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masten, A. S., & Wright, M. O. (1998). Cumulative risk and protection models of child maltreatment. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma, 2, 7–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masten, A. S., & Wright, M. O'D. (2010). Resilience over the lifespan: Developmental perspectives on resistance, recovery, and transformation. In Reich, J. W., Zautra, A. J., & Hall, J. S. (Eds.), Handbook of adult resilience (pp. 213–237). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Nation, M., Crusto, C., Wandersman, A., Kumpfer, K. L., Seybolt, D., Morrissey-Kane, E., et al. (2003). What works in prevention: Principles of effective prevention programs. American Psychologist, 58, 449–456.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Obradović, J. (2010). Effortful control and adaptive functioning of homeless children: Variable-focused and person-focused analyses. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 31, 109–117.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Obradović, J., Long, J. D., Cutuli, J. J., Chan, C.-K., Hinz, E., Heistad, D., et al. (2009). Academic achievement of homeless and highly mobile children in an urban school district: Longitudinal evidence of risk, growth, and resilience. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 493–518.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Obradović, J., Shaffer, A., & Masten, A. S. (in press). Risk in developmental psychopathology: Progress and future directions. In Mayes, L. C. & Lewis, M. (Eds.), The environment of human development: A handbook of theory and measurement. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Realmuto, G. M., Masten, A. S., Carole, L. F., Hubbard, J., Groteluschen, A., & Chhun, B. (1992). Adolescent survivors of massive trauma in Cambodia: Life events and current symptoms. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 5, 589–599.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reynolds, A. J., & Ou, S. (2003). Promoting resilience through early childhood intervention. In Luthar, S. S. (Eds.), Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Rutter, M. (1979). Protective factors in children's responses to stress and disadvantage. In Kent, M. W. & Rolf, J. E. (Eds.), Primary prevention of psychopathology: Vol. 3. Social competence in children (pp. 49–74). Hanover, NH: University Press of New England.Google Scholar
Rutter, M. (1985). Resilience in the face of adversity: Protective factors and resistance to psychiatric disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 598–611.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M. (1990). Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. In Rolf, J., Masten, A. S., Cicchetti, D., Nuechterlein, K. H., & Weintraub, S. (Eds.), Risk and protective factors in the development of psychopathology (pp. 181–214). New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rutter, M. (2006). Implications of resilience concepts for scientific understanding. Annuals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 1–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sameroff, A. J. (2000). Developmental systems and psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 297–312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sameroff, A. J., & Chandler, M. J. (1975). Reproductive risk and the continuum of caretaking casualty. In Horowitz, F. D., Hethterington, E. M., Scarr-Salapatek, S., & Siegel, G. M. (Eds.), Review of child development research (Vol. 4, pp. 187–243). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Samuels, J., Shinn, M., & Buckner, J. C. (2010). Homeless children: Update on research, policy, programs, and opportunities. US Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation.Google Scholar
Schulenberg, J. E., Sameroff, A. J., & Cicchetti, D. (2004). The transition to adulthood as a critical juncture in the course of psychopathology and mental health. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 799–806.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Southwick, S. M., Litz, B., Charney, D., & Friedman, M. J. (Eds.) (in press). Resilience: Responding to challenges across the lifespan. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sroufe, L. A. (1979). The coherence of individual development. Early care, attachment, and subsequent developmental issues. American Psychologist, 34, 834–841.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Toth, S. L., & Cicchetti, D. (1999). Developmental psychopathology and child psychotherapy. In Russ, S. & Ollendick, T. (Eds.), Handbook of psychotherapies with children and families (pp. 15–44). New York: Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Toth, S. L., Manly, J. T., & Nilsen, W. (2008). From research to practice: Lessons learned. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 29, 317–325.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Toth, S. L., Pianta, R. C., & Erickson, M. F. (in press). From research to practice: Developmental contributions to the field of prevention science. In Cicchetti, D. & Roisman, G. I. (Eds.), Minnesota Symposia on Child Psychology: Vol. 36. The origins and organization of adaptation and maladaptation. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Tugel, A. J., Herrick, J. E., Brown, J. R., Mausbach, M. J., Puckett, W., & Hipple, K. (2005). Soil change, soil survey, and natural resources decision making: A blueprint for action. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 69, 738–747.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
von Bertalanffy, L. (1968). General system theory: Foundation, development, application. New York: Braziller.Google Scholar
Wang, M. C., & Gordon, E. W. (Eds.). (1994). Educational resilience in inner-city America: Challenges and prospects. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Walsh, F. (2006). Strengthening family resilience. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Watt, N. F., Anthony, E. J., Wynne, L. C., & Rolf, J. E. (Eds.). (1984). Children at risk for schizophrenia: A longitudinal perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Weissberg, R. P., Kumpfer, K. L., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2003). Prevention that works for children and youth: An introduction. American Psychologist, 58, 425–432.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (1982). Vulnerable but invincible: A study of resilient children. New York: McGraw–Hill.Google Scholar
Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (1992). Overcoming the odds: High risk children from birth to adulthood. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (2001). Journeys from childhood to mid-life: Risk, resilience, and recovery. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Wright, M. O., Masten, A. S., Northwood, A., & Hubbard, J. J. (1997). Long-term effects of massive trauma: Developmental and psychobiological perspectives. In Cicchetti, D. & Toth, S. L. (Eds.), Rochester Symposium on Developmental Psychopathology: Vol. 8. The effects of trauma on the developmental process (pp. 181–225). Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.Google Scholar
Wyman, P. A., Sandler, I., Wolchik, S., & Nelson, K. (2000). Resilience as cumulative competence promotion and stress protection: Theory and intervention. In Cicchetti, D., Rappaport, J., Sandler, I., & Weissberg, R. P. (Eds.), The promotion of wellness in children and adolescents (pp. 133–184). Washington, DC: Child Welfare League of America Press.Google Scholar
Yoshikawa, H. (1994). Prevention as cumulative protection: Effects of early family support and education on chronic delinquency and its risks. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 28–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed