2.1. NLP in CFM

Most of the online customer feedback is in the form of unstructured text. As a research field concerned with the use of computers to understand and manipulate natural language (Chowdhary, Reference Chowdhary and Chowdhary2020), the ability of NLP to support human actors (Coenen et al., Reference Coenen, Davis, Ippolito, Reif and Yuan2021; Wiethof et al., Reference Wiethof, Tavanapour and Bittner2021) in the writing process or in the evaluation of texts has received a lot of attention in recent years. To facilitate the tasks of CFM, we can make use of several NLP technologies such as text generation, sentiment analysis, content analysis, and named entity recognition. They are crucial to analyzing the content of online reviews and generating a high-quality response to them effectively and efficiently. The conclusive analysis of the online image of a company can only be based on detailed data on the content of the review text. This information focuses on both the sentiment and the aspects mentioned in the review. It is crucial to automatically extract this information of different granularity considering the number of reviews. Thanks to the latest NLP research approaches, we can benefit from a fine-grained aspect-based sentiment analysis (Tang et al., Reference Tang, Fu, Yao and Xu2019). The extracted data can be beneficial for further response generation and final response quality evaluation.

Synchronous feedback communication channels enjoy the support of chatbots or conversational agents. Chatbots have been used in various contexts to collect and address customers’ feedback swiftly and cost-effectively (Adam et al., Reference Adam, Wessel and Benlian2021; Omisakin et al., Reference Omisakin, Bandara and Kularatne2020; Sidaoui et al., Reference Sidaoui, Jaakkola and Burton2020). These often AI-based systems communicate with human customers interactively via natural language. However, they often fail to meet customer expectations, mainly due to inconsistent messages to the customers (Adam et al., Reference Adam, Wessel and Benlian2021).

Combining human-like design with NLP technologies could promise a service that is always available and of high quality, very close to real customer service (Diederich et al., Reference Diederich, Janssen-Müller, Brendel and Morana2019). Innovative services of this kind are also referred to as “bots-as-a-services.” Unlike responses to short messages, generating a response to complex texts, which are also reviews, is a challenge. Such text generation is a long-standing research domain for NLP experts, and some solutions are available. Language models such as BERT (Devlin et al., Reference Devlin, Chang, Lee and Toutanova2019) and GPT (Floridi and Chiriatti, Reference Floridi and Chiriatti2020) can predict the appearance of subsequent text tokens based on an input text. These models enable AI systems to continue human-written text or even generate entire paragraphs. There are also attempts to generate review responses with the help of NLP (Katsiuba et al., Reference Katsiuba, Kew, Dolata and Schwabe2022).

Individual NLP researchers propose partial solutions on how the review analysis or review response can work; however, how the high-quality requirements on review answers can be fulfilled remains unsolved. For example, responses must exhibit some level of empathy and individualization. They must be responsive to personalized information from the review and offer business reactions in some circumstances. NLP technologies can handle various tasks, but their integration into a productive system for automation and the role of human actors within it remains unexplored.

2.2. Control theory

The control theory describes one approach for developing feedback systems. It deals with the control of dynamic systems in technical processes and machines. It aims at developing an algorithm or a process that controls the system depending on the system inputs and brings it to the desired state. The design minimizes errors and delays and achieves an optimal stable condition. For this purpose, it requires the sensor to measure the defined process variable (PV) and the controller with appropriate correction behavior. Figure 1 illustrates the control theory schematically. The controller constantly monitors the control PV measured by the sensor and compares it with the reference value or setpoint value (SP). The SP-PV error signal is the difference between the PV and the setpoint value. The controller uses this error as feedback to generate a control action that brings the controlled PV to the same value as the setpoint value. The described measurements and adjustments in the system are only possible if controllability and observability are given. Those parameters represent the basis for the advanced type of automation potential of the process (Doyle et al., Reference Doyle, Francis and Tannenbaum2013).

Figure 1. The control theory components.

Control mechanisms can be implemented by creating an appropriate control loop. The theory distinguishes between open- and closed-loop controls. Open-loop control systems do not connect the control action of the controller with the “process output.” In closed-loop control systems, the control action is dependent on the system output. This system describes a set of physical or software instruments that automatically control a PV to the desired state or setpoint without human intervention. In this sense, closed loops contrast with open loops, which may require manual input.

Initially described in the 19th century, the control theory finds applications in various disciplines like engineering, sociology, linguistics, and dynamic programming. Control systems can be categorized according to the number of inputs and outputs. The simplest system, SISO, has a single input and a single output, while the most complex systems are multi-input–multiple-output (MIMO) systems. MIMO systems are commonly used in computer sciences to simulate the most complicated systems, such as the human body, climatic models, and nuclear reactors.

We argue that control theory offers a suitable framework for understanding and designing sociotechnical CFM processes, where tasks can be assigned to humans, machines, or combinations of both. The diversity of online reviews and the requirements for response quality make it currently impossible to omit human actors from the response process in CFM. Although integrated NLP-based tools can potentially accomplish some tasks of human authors, the final review responses still must be controlled by human authors, based on the feedback from the customers or the administrator. It results in a dynamic human–AI collaboration system that requires an effective and well-designed control mechanism for the feedback system. Applied to the CFM process, control theory provides guidance for the required components, the organization of the process steps, and the management of the feedback loop.

3.1. Problems and solution objectives

We addressed the research questions in cooperation with the Swiss management-owned start-up re:spondelligent, hereafter referred to as the feedback management provider (FMP). The company launched the “Smart Responses” project in collaboration with two research partners specializing in computational linguistics (CL) and information management (IM), along with an IT company. FMP offers CFM services for the hospitality industry, including the collection and analysis of online reviews, as well as the writing of customized review responses. This study specifically focuses on FMP’s review answering service.

Initially, human authors were responsible for formulating review responses. To better understand the challenges in this process, we conducted a series of in-depth interviews with three authors and two FMP managers to identify key problems and explore potential solutions. The interview data was qualitatively analyzed and the findings were further refined in a workshop with the FMP administrators to clarify the solution objectives and design ideas for improving the review response process.

3.2. Design and development of “Smart Responder”

The study is part of an extensive Design Science Research (DSR) project (Hevner et al., Reference Hevner, March, Park and Ram2004), which includes six iterative steps, starting with problem identification, followed by design and development, and ending with communication. In carrying out our study, we largely follow Peffers’ DSR methodology (Peffers et al., Reference Peffers, Tuunanen, Rothenberger and Chatterjee2007). The overarching goal of the project is to integrate AI into CFM within the hospitality industry, while also contributing to a deeper understanding of human–AI collaboration in co-writing scenarios.

In the chapter “Problem Identification and Solution Objectives,” we detail the problems identified and propose solutions that were subsequently implemented. The evaluation of these solutions was carried out in two iterations. In the first iteration, we ran an experiment with human authors immediately after the development of the solution, focusing on evaluating the process and the effectiveness and usability of the developed solutions. In the second iteration, we analyzed usage data of the new solution over a 1-year period to evaluate the long-term impact of the new solution. These evaluation steps are described in detail in the following sections.

3.3. Evaluation first iteration

The evaluation step is crucial in the DSR approach to assess the effectiveness of our system and its support of the authors during the response process. Following the Framework for Evaluation in Design Science (FEDS) (Venable et al., Reference Venable, Pries-Heje and Baskerville2016), we selected an evaluation strategy and organized a two-step evaluation process. The first phase involved professional authors from our project partner FMP, who integrated the evaluation into their normal work tasks. The authors used the “Smart Responder” tool to generate responses to real-life reviews in German and English. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the number of active professional authors was limited (n = 4, referred with IDs P0–P3). In the second phase, we invited master-level students (n = 14, referred to with IDs A/BC/0-A/B/C3) of a computer science seminar, “The Future of Work,” to participate in a role-playing simulation, where they formed test companies similar to FMP. Each test company consisted of 3–4 authors and one administrator. The authors of these test companies responded to assigned reviews under the supervision of administrators who distributed the reviews and controlled the quality of the final response. The evaluation lasted 3 days for each group, with a set number of representative reviews (n = 164) sampled from the FMP database based on language (German or English), domain (hotels and restaurants), and star rankings.

After the evaluation, all authors completed an online survey. Each questionnaire covered topics related to the objectives of the solution (system usability, support provided by the new system tools) and the self-perception of the authors while working with it (well-being, efficacy (Salanova et al., Reference Salanova, Llorens Gumbau, Cifre, Martínez and Schaufeli2003)). The questionnaires were conducted in English. Additionally, we gathered data on AI support in the “Smart Responder.” We also gathered data on AI support in the “Smart Responder” through remote personal interviews. The interviews were transcribed and a bottom-up coding approach was used to identify themes and address the issues raised by the respondents (Saldana, Reference Saldana2021). One researcher coded the data, while two senior researchers provided supervision, ensuring coding quality and consistency through iterative checks and discussions of edge cases.

3.4. Evaluation second iteration

To gain a clearer understanding of the impact of AI integration, we analyzed data from the year in which the new AI tools were actively used. The second evaluation iteration, conducted 1 year later, focused on how AI integration had influenced the roles of the various participants in the review-response process. The project partner provided a comprehensive dataset that covered the period from August 1, 2023, to July 31, 2024, consisting of 21,383 unique review–response pairs in both German (69%) and English (31%). The reviews were sourced from multiple platforms, including Google, Facebook, and TripAdvisor, and we focused solely on reviews where the final response had already been published online, ensuring that each response had gone through the entire review-edit-publish cycle.

Each review-response pair in the dataset offered valuable insights into the collaboration between various actors in the review-response process. By analyzing the differences between the initial drafts and the final published versions, our goal was to determine the role that each actor played, whether human authors, AI systems, or business representatives, in shaping the final response. This analysis also provided insights into the extent of participation by human actors in the evolving loop of review–response formulation, especially in cases where multiple contributors were involved. To quantify the degree of similarity or variation between the initial and final versions, we applied the Levenshtein distance and Jaccard similarity metrics, well-established algorithms for measuring differences between two texts.

4.1. Problem identification and solution objectives

The following scenario describes the role of FMP and the process addressed by the project. Imagine a medium-sized pizzeria “Roma.” Like most businesses in the hospitality sector, they already have a profile on TripAdvisor and Yelp. They are aware of the importance of guest feedback, and in order to improve its online image, the pizzeria decides to outsource CFM to the external CFM provider FMP. FMP employs professional authors familiar with the process of responding to reviews. Every day FMP first retrieves online reviews from “Roma” with the help of its own software solution and APIs. After collecting reviews, the FMP manager (Administrator) identifies which reviews require a response based on the specifications of the pizzeria and assigns it to a response author based on availability, skills, experience, and review difficulty. The review author (for instance, Peter) receives assigned tasks and has 24 hours to formulate response suggestions. Replying to the online reviews presents a particular challenge for Peter. Like all professional authors, Peter first reads and analyzes the unanswered review and identifies the issue (the criticism or praise) mentioned in the text. Since Peter does not know the pizzeria, he uses the FMP application to find out more about the business (opening hours, location, and comments from the pizzeria about temporary offers, events, possible problems, etc.) and collects additional data. Afterward, Peter formulates a possible response. Naturally, this response must be personalized and meet the requirements and specifications of the pizzeria “Roma.” The administrator validates the submitted response. If the quality of the response is good, the administrator forwards it to the pizzeria “Roma.” In the case of an insufficient response, the answer may be edited directly by the administrator or sent back to the author for revision. However, the final decision about the publication makes the pizzeria “Roma.” The process is depicted in Figure 2 and results in high-quality manually formulated responses that satisfy FMP clients.

Figure 2. The current responding process at FMP.

The described process poses FMP and its employees with considerable challenges. Professional authors, incl. Peter, need to meet all quality requirements and write the best possible and up-to-date responses. The existing FMP application does not provide any automation, and professional authors handle all steps manually, which takes much time and makes the process expensive. Finally, FMP employees must provide the answer within a limited time frame. This requirement creates a logistical and qualitative challenge for FMP, whose staff struggles to meet the demand in an acceptable time. This study aims to establish a human–AI collaboration system that leverages the strengths and skills of both actors to improve CFM. The goal is to create an intelligent system that effectively utilizes multiple inputs (reviews, venue information, venue comments) to generate high-quality review responses while optimizing the resources of professional writers.

During the first iteration, discussions with the CEO and administrators of the FMP helped us identify key challenges and define the corresponding solution objectives. These objectives include improving the quality of information, increasing process efficiency, enhancing transparency, and defining responsibility for quality. Table 1 outlines the challenges alongside the respective solution objectives and design ideas aimed at achieving these goals.

Table 1. Problems in CFM and corresponding solution objectives with design ideas

The existing FMP software enabled partially structured storage of venue data in a “notebook” format. However, the new solution aims to enhance the quality of information by shifting the focus toward improving the review–response writing process. The core objective is to make the writing process more efficient by providing authors with support during response formulation and ensuring the quality of the final text. According to control theory (Doyle et al., Reference Doyle, Francis and Tannenbaum2013), effective automation requires the system to address both observability and controllability. Since the goal is to produce high-quality responses, the quality of the responses serves as the key PV that must be monitored and controlled. To achieve this, the resulting system clarifies quality responsibility and introduces a measurable PV that can be regulated. To maintain high standards for responses published online, we implemented a two-step quality control mechanism. This mechanism involves both FMP and the hospitality company, ensuring that each response meets the desired quality. Additionally, the hospitality company will oversee direct online communication with guests, ensuring that their engagement aligns with brand standards and customer service expectations.

4.2. Design and development of “Smart Responder”

In the “Smart Responses” project, we created the “Smart Responder” system to tackle the identified issues and achieve the solution objectives. This AI-based MISO control system is designed to enhance the response process by effectively combining human author skills with AI capabilities. Figure 3 illustrates the innovative approach of using advanced NLP technologies to organize the response process of the FMP.

Figure 3. The novel AI-assisted responding process.

In the first step, the Administrator assigns the reviews to authors based on their experience and availability. An intelligent sentiment and content analysis tool supports review analysis. After this, a smart response generator preformulates the review responses. The “Smart Responder” utilizes the stored venue information to finalize the answer text. The last AI-supported step estimates the quality of the final review response. During the subsequent proofreading phase, the professional writer uses detailed quality information.

Application redesign and enhanced use of venue information. “Smart Responder” supports the SO “Information Quality” and changes the design of the existing software solution. It categorizes and structures venue information (food, venue, ambiance, service, etc.), providing authors with access to company details and the ability to add comments. To handle the volume of data, a mechanism is implemented to present authors with new information about the company they have not seen before (in a pop-up window). This information builds on the historical data: whether the author has already written a response for this location and whether there have been any new contributions to this venue since the last time. Moreover, the “Smart Responder” utilizes review content to filter and prioritize relevant venue information. To evaluate how well the solution achieves the objective, we measure the usability score of the entire system (Bangor et al., Reference Bangor, Kortum and Miller2008).

Sentiment and content analysis. To address the tagging efficiency problem, the ‘Smart Responder’ improves the review tagging process. It includes a customized sentiment and content analysis engine that automatically identifies and classifies aspects in guest-written online reviews that need to be addressed in an authored response. The solution extracts and analyzes text spans related to fine-grained aspects such as food, service, and facilities. Sentiment analysis is performed on these spans using state-of-the-art text classification techniques. The engine is trained on annotated data manually labeled by FMP.

Difficulty score for the reviews. “Smart Responder” supports the authors’ work by estimating how difficult it is to answer the review. For the difficulty score calculation, we use the following parameters: meta-information such as review length, rating, language, platform, type of venue, and the results of sentiment analysis and content analysis of the review text. This score uses FMP historical data and predicts the difficulty of a review on a scale from 1 (easy) to 3 (difficult). The rating is displayed as part of the evaluation information and is easily identifiable by traffic light color coding.

Quality score for responses and quality checker. To address the authors’ need for feedback and improve response quality transparency, the “Smart Responder” incorporates a quality assessment mechanism. This mechanism introduces a PV, the quality score, to evaluate the responses. A quality score is calculated based on the quality characteristics specified and formalized in a workshop with FMP administrators, prioritized, and later weighted during an iterative process. The characteristics include five main categories (grammar, language, length/structure, content, and greetings/farewells) and 22 characteristics, e.g., language errors, incorrect punctuation, structure, responsiveness to negatives/positives, etc.). The Quality Checker, acting as the feedback control system’s sensor (Doyle et al., Reference Doyle, Francis and Tannenbaum2013), calculates the quality score based on the review, business information, answer, and sentiment analysis results. The score, ranging from 0 to 100, provides authors with feedback on the answer quality.

For automation purposes, the control system requires a threshold (SP). FMP managers establish target values for each quality category, resulting in a final target quality score of 85. The Quality Checker compares the output quality score with the threshold value to determine if a response can be submitted. Initially, the quality checker provides results (per category) in a concise format. If quality is sufficient or insufficient, users can access a detailed overview of errors and suggestions for improvement for each quality characteristic.

Response generator. The tremendous potential for the “Smart Responder” in achieving the SO “Process efficiency” lies in supporting authors in the formulation of response texts. The system integrates an intelligent Respond Generator that solves the task as a sequence-to-sequence (seq2seq) modeling problem. Respond Generator uses BART, a self-coding denoising model, and a dataset of about 8000 pairs of online reviews assembled from responses written by the FMP authors. The proposed generator tool is data driven and includes three main processing steps: preprocessing followed by generation and post-processing (Katsiuba et al., Reference Katsiuba, Kew, Dolata and Schwabe2022). The “Smart Responder” user sees the results as soon as the assigned review appears and can apply, edit, or completely overwrite the pre-written text.

“Smart Responder” provides FMP employees with a digital workspace that consolidates all described components into a single, well-organized interface (see Figure 4).

Figure 4. Implemented “Smart Responder”: Author interface.

4.3. Evaluation

The implemented artifact seems to be well accepted by both subject groups. Professional authors highly value the application for its modern design, new functionality, and user-friendliness. They appreciate the improved work structure and the convenience of not having to scroll extensively to find the necessary information. The author P2 finds the new system easy to get into and “quite self-explanatory […] It was very […] easy to get started” (P2). The new system is described as easy to understand and navigate, aiding their workflow. The introduction of venue and author comments allows for more information to be incorporated. The AI tools, particularly the quality checker, are well-regarded (P0, P1). These positive impressions align with the measured system usability score (SUS G = 85). On the other hand, the new authors seem to have high satisfaction with the app but lower than the professional authors, which is reflected in the lower SUS score (SUS G = 67). They particularly appreciate the application’s structure and find the available information helpful in crafting responses, confirming the fulfillment of SO “Information Quality.” The authors explicitly emphasize that they rely on and use the information available in the system. “I really appreciated it, especially when the clients mentioned some specific things, then I could check the comments. Sometimes I could use some information from there to give advice for the next visit” (B4). As a result, almost none of them search for information about customers online. Moreover, the authors mention that filling and updating such information is a potential field for additional AI-driven tools (P1).

Opinions on the Sentiment and Content Analysis tool vary among subjects. Professional authors generally find it useful, with only a small percentage of cases producing incorrect output: “only 10% of the cases were a wrong output and the rest are properly categorized” (P1). Nevertheless, they believe that, in general, authors do not need the sentiment and content analysis “to get the job done” since they need to read a review themselves (P0). Another author appreciates the tool’s ability to highlight positive and negative phrases, allowing for a quick understanding of the review. For example, when the complete review is marked in green with single red spots, the author focuses on writing a positive answer and only looks more closely at the objections and addresses those negative points (P2). New authors, on the other hand, need time to familiarize themselves with the content categories and tagging concepts, and the different colors used in the tool initially confused them. Overall, both tools received limited acknowledgment from the authors, with less than 50% feeling supported by the content and sentiment analysis outputs (see Figure 5).

Figure 5. Perceived support of “Smart Responder” components.

The Quality Score, along with the Response Generator, has a significant impact on author practices. The authors value the feedback provided by the quality checker and appreciate having direct insight into their performance. Professional authors, who are already familiar with the process, welcome the introduction of a quantified value to represent quality. For novice authors, the quality score provides guidance and helps them identify mistakes, although they still have the autonomy to determine what constitutes a good response.

The authors identified some weaknesses in the tool implementation that could impact authoring practices. One concern raised is the tool’s limitation in handling multiple languages within a single response. Specifically, author P2 sees a problem that the tool is not trained to work on reviews with Swiss German (which many customers in Switzerland expect) and company-specific spellings (e.g., all lowercase letters in a particular sentence) as valid. It can lead to false grammar error marks. The authors highlight the importance of allowing corrections and exclusions of such language-specific mistakes during the calculation of the Quality Score. However, the current version of the tool lacks a feedback option to address these issues, such as “it is not a mistake” or “ignore this mistake,” which the authors suggest implementing in future versions (P0). The tool has a weakness in its motivating role for authors. Although it directly impacts their performance, the quality checker only focuses on highlighting errors and lacks positive reinforcement. The tool’s approach of “no news is good news” without providing praise or acknowledgment is seen as a fundamental error that needs adjustment, according to author P2. Furthermore, the logic applied by the quality checker is not transparent (“it is not quite transparent”—P2) and can be frustrating and demotivating for authors, especially when its results are not immediately understandable. Despite these weaknesses, 80% of the authors still found the quality estimation tool helpful.

The Response Generator is highly appreciated by the authors as it provides them with the initial version of the response. The quality of the generated texts varies depending on the difficulty of the review. The easiest reviews are positive reviews with a five-star ranking, while the most difficult are the negative or neutral reviews with a 2–3 stars ranking (P0).

Opinions about the response generator’s performance could hardly be more diverse. It is generally effective for simple reviews from existing customers but falls short in providing personalized responses for more difficult reviews. “Unfortunately, an auto-generated response is often a burden as it looks good and correct, but it is not” (P0). Therefore, the answers to the challenging reviews may rarely be utilized completely. The automatically created text often has content-related mistakes (for example, wrong name of the restaurant/hotel or wrong location in the response’s body) or even spelling errors. It is the main body of the response that is most often faulty. However, it is rather positive that the machine-generated text gives a structure, where the salutation and the greeting are almost always correct.

Despite the errors and problems with generating customized text, the authors answered the question, “How is the overall quality of the generated responses? Where 1—very poor and 10—excellent,” with an average value of mean = 7.07 (SD = 1.33). They see inaccurate texts as facilitation of routine work. The response generator is “quite an imperfect tool, which nonetheless saves time despite its faults” (P2). It is easier to correct the ambiguous response than write it from scratch. “It is clearly much more difficult if you do not have anything if you have to write everything yourself from the beginning […] It also takes more time than when you correct adaptively. Adjusting is always easier than writing everything yourself” (P2). While the professional authors are mostly skeptical of the generated responses, the newcomer authors rely heavily on the AI-provided structure and only make small changes themselves. “My role was kind of the teacher of the AI. I just double-checked what it wrote, corrected it, and then sent it. The role of the AI was to prepare everything so that I only had to check it” (C3). The danger of the current version of the generator is those automatically generated responses may be “full of bad content written correctly” (P0). Therefore, the authors indicate a need for self-assessment for AI-generator.

The Difficulty Score is the feature that all authors considered to have the least impact on their work practices—albeit very few—used it as a rough guide to determine how much time to allocate for a response. “It helps you to get a general idea of how difficult this review is going to be […] I just noticed what the difficulty score is if it was very hard, and I knew I am gonna invest some more time here” (B1). Professional authors, with their experience, do not find the score relevant as they can handle any level of difficulty efficiently. The score may not be relevant for the authors, but it can benefit further process engineering.

5.1. Design and development

Over the past year, the performance of large language models (LLMs) has significantly improved. The advances in language models have transformed the business model of FMP. One year after the introduction of the new solution, FMP offers several options for composing responses to customer reviews: (1) Standard texts for simple reviews: For straightforward reviews, hotels and restaurants can define predefined standard texts that are published under their name. (2) Human-generated responses: For more complex reviews, responses are initially written by FMP authors and may be edited by business representatives (e.g. hotel or restaurant managers) before being published. (3) AI-generated responses: Another option for complex reviews involves responses that are generated by the FMP’s AI-based response generator. These are then revised and published by business managers.

These changes have impacted the solution objectives, particularly in the areas of Quality Responsibility and Transparency. While most objectives remain relevant, the improved quality of LLM outputs has reduced the need for professional writers for less demanding reviews. In certain cases, there is now only single-step quality control, as the improved quality of LLM outputs no longer requires professional response writers for less demanding reviews. As a result, the quality control process, which was previously outsourced to FMP, can now be performed internally by the hospitality businesses. In the updated process (see Figure 3), this control function is completely taken over by the hospitality company. However, this streamlined approach only applies to outputs from specially trained LLMs and not to all randomly generated responses. The responsibility for guest communication remains in the hands of the hospitality businesses.

In the initial phase of the project, we discussed the issue of authorship transparency with FMP managers. However, due to the limitations of review platforms (which do not allow authorship identification) and the shift to external quality control by hospitality companies, the proposed transparency measures were not implemented. With the development of LLMs, the concept of authorship has evolved, making it increasingly difficult to distinguish between human-written and AI-generated responses. As AI-generated content becomes more prevalent, it is increasingly important to ensure transparency about what has been written by humans versus AI. Understanding the roles of those involved in the writing process, as well as the proportion of human versus AI-generated content, is essential for addressing transparency in human–AI collaboration in CFM.

5.2. Evaluation

To assess the contributions made by different response authors in the formulation of the final response text, we analyzed the number of modifications applied to both human-written and LLM-generated outputs. For this purpose, we used two text similarity metrics. Since there is no single metric that can fully capture all aspects of text similarity, we applied two distinct approaches: single-character differences (Levenshtein distance) and word-based differences (Jaccard similarity). A Levenshtein distance close to zero or a Jaccard (or cosine) similarity near one would indicate that the final response text has changed very little from the original.

We analyzed a total of 15,098 human-authored responses and 2560 AI-generated responses, examining the roles played by the original author and the client manager in the revision process (see Table 2). The table presents an intriguing comparison between human-authored and AI-generated responses, focusing on the modifications made by company managers prior to publication: AI-generated responses were more frequently altered: 61% were revised before publication, compared to just 15% of human-written responses. This indicates that while AI-generated responses often require some refinement, they still provide a useful first draft for company managers.

Table 2. Adjustments to the pre-formulated review responses, done by the company managers

In terms of the extent of the modifications required, human-written responses typically necessitated larger adjustments in terms of the number of characters changed. The mean Levenshtein distance for human-written responses was 75.22 characters, compared to 63.29 characters for AI-generated responses. However, in comparison to the overall content, it was observed that AI-generated responses underwent a greater proportion of alterations (15% versus 10% for human-written responses). Notwithstanding these discrepancies, both categories of responses exhibited a considerable degree of retention of their original content, as evidenced by the elevated Jaccard similarity scores (0.82 for human responses and 0.80 for AI). This illustrates that although managers were more inclined to modify AI-generated responses, the ultimate versions of both AI and human responses were not notably different from their initial drafts.