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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 27 October 2017
During the last decade, the European Union has taken a variety of initiatives that together form a policy on combating racial discrimination. Understandably, legal academics have so far devoted greatest attention to the legislative initiatives, most notably, the EU Race Directive. The Directive is striking, both because of its broad material scope (covering areas such as employment, education, housing and healthcare), but also as a result of the new directions that it introduced into EU antidiscrimination law. Whilst it is certainly the centrepiece of EU anti-racism policy, it is part of a broader policy framework. This includes other, less auspicious legal instruments, as well as various public expenditure programmes. The EU Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia provides an institutional dimension to the anti-racism policy.
1 Directive 2000/43/EC implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin, [2000] OJ L180/22. There is a substantial body of literature on the Directive: inter alia, Toggenburg, G ‘The Race Directive: A New Dimension in the Fight against Ethnic Discrimination in Europe’ (2001/2) 1 European Yearbook of Minority Issues 231 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Brown, C ‘The Race Directive: Towards Equality for All the Peoples of Europe?’ (2002) 21 Yearbook of European Law 195 Google Scholar; Jones, T ‘The Race Directive: Redefining Protection from Discrimination in EU Law’ (2003) European Human Rights Law Review 515.
2 For example, the definition of harassment or the requirement to establish a body for the promotion of equal treatment.
3 eg the Joint Action concerning action to combat racism and xenophobia, [1996] OJ L185/5.
4 eg the Community Action Programme to combat discrimination (2001-2006), [2000] OJ L303/23.
5 The European Council has decided in principle to transform this body into a broader ‘human rights agency’; EU Monitoring Centre, ‘Future EU Human Rights Agency Must Not Detract from Urgent Fight against Racism’, Press Release, 10 March, 2004 available at http://eumc.eu.int/eumc/material/doc/404f01c1a6196_doc_EN.pdf.
6 COM(1998)183.
7 Art III–118.
8 Recital 8.
9 See further: http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/equal/index_en.html.
10 Kenner, J ‘Employment and Macroeconomics in the EC Treaty: A Legal and Political Symbiosis’ (2000) 7 Maastricht Journal of European and Comparative Law 375, 378CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
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12 Szysczczak, E ‘The Evolving European Employment Strategy’ in Shaw, J (ed), Social Law and Policy in an Evolving Union (Oxford, Hart Publishing, 2000)Google Scholar.
13 Kenner, J, above n 10.
14 Van Berkel, R and Hornemann Møller, I ‘The Concept of Activation’ in Van Berkel, R and Hornemann Møller, I (eds) Active Social Policies in the EU: Inclusion through Participation? (Bristol, Policy Press, 2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
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19 De la Porte, C, Pochet, P and Room, G ‘Social Benchmarking, Policy-making and the Instruments of New Governance in the EU’ (2001) 11 Journal of European Social Policy 291 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lundvall, B and Tomlinson, M ‘International Benchmarking as a Policy Learning Tool’ in Rodrigues, M (ed) The New Knowledge Economy in Europe—A Strategy for InternationalCompetitiveness and Social Cohesion (Cheltenham, Edward Elgar, 2002)Google Scholar.
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22 Pillar IV, Council Resolution on the 1998 Employment Guidelines, [1998] OJ C30/1.
23 Council Resolution on the 1999 Employment Guidelines, [1999] OJ C69/2.
24 Commission, ‘Draft Joint Employment Report 2003/2004’ COM(2004)24 final/2 at 13.
25 Guideline 9.
26 Guideline 7, Council Decision on guidelines for Member States’ employment policies for the year 2001, [2001] OJ L22/18.
27 Para 3.1.5, Commission and Council, ‘Joint Employment Report 2000’, available at: http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/employment_strategy/report_2000/jer2000_en.pdf.
28 Commission and Council, ‘Joint Employment Report 2002’, p 38, available at: http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/employment_strategy/report_2002/jer2002_fin al_en.pdf. See also, Commission and Council, ‘Joint Employment Report 2001’, p 25, available at: http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/employment_strategy/report_2001/jer2001_en.pdf.
29 Szyszczak, E above n 12.
30 Para X, Council Recommendation on the implementation of Member States’ employment policies, [2001] OJ L22/27.
31 Council Recommendation on the implementation of Member States’ employment policies, [2002] OJ L60/70.
32 The text in relation to the Netherlands refers more vaguely to ‘minorities’; Council Recommendation on the implementation of Member States’ employment policies, [2003] OJ L197/22.
33 De la Porte, C and Pochet, P ‘The European Employment Strategy: Existing Research and Remaining Questions’ (2004) 14 Journal of European Social Policy 71, 74CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
34 Mosher, J and Trubek, D ‘Alternative Approaches to Governance in the EU: EU Social Policy and the European Employment Strategy’ (2003) 41 Journal of Common Market Studies 63, 79CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
35 Skidmore, P ‘The European Employment Strategy and Labour Law: A German Case-Study’ (2004) 29 ELR 52, 72Google Scholar; Rubery, J ‘Gender Mainstreaming and Gender Equality in the EU: The Impact of the EU Employment Strategy’ (2002) 33 Industrial Relations Journal 500, 511CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
36 Commission, ‘Assessment of the Implementation of the 2002 Employment Guidelines: Supporting Document to the Joint Employment Report 2002’ SEC (2002) 1204/2 at 76.
37 Thanks to Sarah-Jane King for bringing this to my attention.
38 Commission, ‘Impact Evaluation of the EES. Background Paper: Social Inclusion’ (2002), available at: http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/employment_strategy/eval/papers/inclusion_en.pdf/.
39 Council Decision on guidelines for the employment policies of the Member States, [2003] OJ L197/13. See also, Commission, ‘The Future of the European Employment Strategy: A Strategy for Full Employment and Better Jobs for All’ COM(2003)6.
40 See also, Commission, ‘Employment and Social Policies: A Framework for Investing in Quality’ COM(2001)313 at 8.
41 Guideline 7.
42 The 2003 NAPs are available from: http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/employment_strategy/03_national_en.htm.
43 Art 1, Directive 2000/43.
44 Tyson, A ‘The Negotiation of the European Community Directive on Racial Discrimination’ (2001) 3 European Journal of Migration and Law 199, 201CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
45 Recital 6.
46 Art 3(2).
47 In 2002, there were 7.3 million non-nationals resident in Germany, around 9% of the population: Federal Republic of Germany, ‘National Action Plan for Employment Policy’ (2003), p 26: http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/employment_strategy/nap_2003/nap_de _en.pdf.
48 2001, guideline 7.
49 2003, guideline 7.
50 Commission and Council, above n 27. eg Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Labour, ‘Implementation Report 2002 on the National Action Plan for Employment: Austria’, pp 37-8, available at: http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/employment_strategy/nap_2002/nap_austria_en.pdf.
51 Sweden, ‘Sweden’s Action Plan for Employment’, p 38, available at: http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/employment_strategy/nap_2003/nap_sv_en.pdf.
52 Denmark, ‘Denmark’s national action plan for employment 2003’, para II.7.2, available at: http//europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/employment_strategy/nap_2003/nap_da_en. pdf.
53 eg Case C–438/00 Deutscher Handballbund eV v Kolpak [2003] ECR I–4135.
54 Art 11, Directive 2003/109/EC concerning the status of third country nationals who are long term residents, [2004] OJ L16/44.
55 Poulter, S ‘Muslim Headscarves in School: Contrasting Legal Approaches in England and France’ (1997) 17 OJLS 43, 48CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
56 Ibid, 51.
57 Art 7(1), Directive 2000/43.
58 Art 7(2).
59 Art 13(2).
60 Art 11.
61 Art 12.
62 Art 13(2).
63 2003, guideline 7.
64 Belgium, ‘Stratégie européenne pour l’emploi: plan d’action national 2003 pour l’emploi’, p 29, at: http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/employment_strategy/ap_2003/nap_be_fr.pdf.
65 Ibid.
66 Above n 47.
67 Above n 52.
68 Employment Taskforce, ‘Jobs, Jobs, Jobs—Creating More Employment in Europe. Report of the Employment Taskforce chaired by Wim Kok’ (2003), p 44, available at: http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/employment_strategy/pdf/etf_en.pdf.
69 Belgium, above n 64 at 30; Sweden, above n 51 at 38.
70 Para F, Council Decision on guidelines for Member States’ employment policies for the year 2002, [2002] OJ L60/60.
71 Commission, above n 40.
72 See also, Commission, ‘Improving Quality at Work: A Review of Recent Progress’ COM(2003)728.
73 For reports on national implementation of the Race Directive, see: http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/fundamental_rights/legis/msleglnracequal_en.htm.
74 Art 8b(4), Directive 2002/73/EC of the European Parliament and Council amending Council Directive 76/207/EEC on the implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men and women as regards access to employment, vocational training and promotion, and working conditions, [2002] OJ L269/15.
75 Glastra, F, Schedler, P and Kats, E ‘Employment Equity Policies in Canada and the Netherlands: Enhancing Minority Employment between Public Controversy and Market Initiative’ (1998) 26 Policy and Politics 163 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
76 Ethnic monitoring is forbidden in Denmark: Bell, M Anti-discrimination Law and the European Union (Oxford, OUP, 2002) 169 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
77 Glastra, F et al above n 75, 169.
78 For example, universities are under a duty to monitor the ethnicity of their staff and students according to the specific duty on higher education institutions: Race Relations Act 1976 (Statutory Duties) Order 2001, no 3458.
79 Amendment 44, European Parliament legislative resolution on the proposal for a Council Directive on implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin, [2001] OJ C59/271.
80 Rubery, J, Grimshaw, D, Fagan, C, Figueiredo, H and Smith, M ‘Gender Equality still on the European Agenda—But for How Long?’ (2003) 34 Industrial Relations Journal 477, 484CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
81 Commission and Council, above n 27; Commission and Council, above n 28.
82 Commission, above n 24, 31.
83 This data covers 14 EU states from 2002, with no data available from Italy. Commission, Employment in Europe 2003 (Luxembourg, Office for the Official Publications of the European Communities, 2003) at 190.
84 Ibid. Italy, Ireland, Luxembourg and Portugal are not included.
85 Ibid, 194.
86 ‘High qualified’ EU nationals had an employment participation rate of 83.4% in 2002, against 66.9% for high qualified non-EU nationals, ibid.
87 Commission, above n 39, 6.
88 Guideline 7.
89 Commission, ‘Proposal for a Council Decision on Guidelines for the Employment Policies of the Member States’ COM(2003)176, 13.
90 Commission, ‘Communication on Immigration, Integration and Employment’ COM (2003)336.
91 Brüggemann, B and Riehle, R ‘The Integration of Ethnic Minorities in Germany and the Influence of the European Employment Strategy’ (2003) 9 Transfer 525, 530CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
92 Skidmore, P, above n 35, 58. See also, Commission, ‘Taking Stock of Five Years of the European Employment Strategy’ COM(2002)416 at 12.
93 Mosher, J and Trubek, D, above n 34, 75.
94 De la Porte, C above n 21, 50; Commission, above n 38, 10.
95 Behning, U and Serrano Pascual, A ‘Comparison of the Adaptation of Gender Mainstreaming in National Employment Strategies’ in U, Behning and A Serrano, Pascual (eds), Gender Mainstreaming in the European Employment Strategy (Brussels, European Trade Union Institute, 2001)Google Scholar; Rubery, J, above n 35; Rubery, J et al, above n 80.
96 Commission, above n 38, 9.
97 This has been the subject of a study financed by DG Enterprise. Centre for Enterprise and Economic Development Research, ‘Young Entrepreneurs, Women Entrepreneurs, Co-entrepreneurs and Ethnic Minority Entrepreneurs in the European Union and Central and Eastern Europe’ (2000), available at: http://europa.eu.int/comm/enterprise/entrepreneurship/raft/craft-studies/entrepreneurs-young-women-minorities.htm.
98 One exception is Sweden: above n 51.