The cultivation of the sunflower (Helianthus annuus) in Ukraine is of great importance, especially in the eastern part, which suffers much from drought. In this area the sunflower constitutes the largest single crop, even exceeding maize, owing to its greater capability for withstanding drought.

There are few countries in which agriculture is more important and the enemies of the crops less known than Mesopotamia. The following notes on a serious pest of the fig-tree in various parts of the Baghdad vilayet were put together on the River Diyala, north-east of Baghdad, at the end of July 1918. The Liparid moth which is so injurious has been determined by Sir G. F. Hampson as Ocnerogyia amanda, Staud. The larve devoured all the fig leaves completely. with the exception of one or two of the large vascular bundles. The fruit shrivelled and dropped before it was ripe.

Cytochrome P450 proteins (CYPs) in insects can encode various detoxification enzymes and catabolize heterologous substances, conferring tolerance to insecticides. This study describes the identification of a P450 gene (CYP6BQ8) from Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) and investigation of its spatiotemporal expression profile and potential role in the detoxification of terpinen-4-ol, a component of plant essential oils. The developmental expression profile showed that TcCYP6BQ8 expression was relatively higher in early- and late-larval stages of T. castaneum compared with other developmental stages. Tissue expression profiles showed that TcCYP6BQ8 was mainly expressed in the head and integument of both larvae and adults. The expression profiling of TcCYP6BQ8 in developmental stages and tissues is closely related to the detoxification of heterologous substances. TcCYP6BQ8 expression was significantly induced after exposure to terpinen-4-ol, and RNA interference against TcCYP6BQ8 increased terpinen-4-ol-induced larval mortality from 47.78 to 66.67%. This indicates that TcCYP6BQ8 may be involved in T. castaneum's metabolism of terpinen-4-ol. Correlation investigation between the CYP6BQ8 gene and terpinen-4-ol resistance in T. castaneum revealed that the TcCYP6BQ8 gene was one of the factors behind T. castaneum's resistance to terpinen-4-ol. This discovery may provide a new theoretical foundation for future regulation of T. castaneum.

Fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) is a polyphagous and highly destructive invasive insect pest of many crops. It was recently introduced into India and widely reported in almost all parts of India. Development of a temperature-based phenology model for predicting its rate of development and distribution will help in understanding the establishment and further spread of introduced invasive insect pests. Development, survival and reproduction parameters of S. frugiperda at six constant temperature conditions (15, 20, 25, 27, 30 and 35°C) were investigated and further validated with data generated under fluctuating temperature conditions. The estimated lower developmental threshold temperatures were 12.1°C for eggs, 11°C for larvae, 12.2°C for pupae, 15.13°C for males and 12.66°C for females. Degree-day (DD) requirements for the development of the different stages of S. frugiperda were 50, 250 and 200 DD for egg, larva and pupa, respectively. The best-fitted functions were compiled for each life stage to yield a phenology model, which was stochastically simulated to estimate the life table parameters. The developed phenology model predicted temperature ranges between 27 and 30°C as favourable for S. frugiperda development, survival and reproduction. The results revealed that maximum net reproductive rate (215.66 females/female/generation) and total fecundity (981.08 individuals/female/generation) were attained at 30°C constant temperature. The mean length of generations decreased from 74.29 days at 15°C to 38.74 days at 30°C. The maximum intrinsic rate of increase (0.138 females/female/day) and shortest doubling time (4.9 days) were also observed at 30°C. Results of simulated life table parameters showed high temperature-dependent development of S. frugiperda and complete development within all the tested constant temperature ranges (15–35°C). Simulated life table parameters for predicting risk indices of S. frugiperda in India indicated a significant increase in activity indices and establishment risk indices with a higher number of generations during future (2050 and 2070) climatic change scenarios compared to present conditions. Our results indicate that India will be highly suitable for the establishment and survival of S. frugiperda in future time periods.

Migratory insects display diverse behavioral strategies in response to external environmental shifts, via energy allocation of migration-reproduction trade-offs. However, how migratory insects distribute energy between migration and reproduction as an adaptive strategy to confront temporary low temperatures remains unclear. Here, we used Mythimna separata, a migratory cereal crop pest, to explore the effects of low temperature on reproductive performance, behavior, and energy allocation. We found that the influence of low temperatures on reproduction was not absolutely negative, but instead depended on the intensity, duration, and age of exposure to low temperature. Exposure to 6°C for 24 h significantly accelerated the onset of oviposition and ovarian development, and increased the synchrony of egg-laying and lifetime fecundity in 1-day-old adults compared to the control, while female's flight capacity decreased significantly on the first and second day after moths were exposed to 6°C. Furthermore, the abdominal and total triglycerides levels of females decreased significantly from exposure to low temperature, but their thoracic triglyceride content was significantly higher than the control on the third and fourth day. These results indicated that low temperatures induced M. separata to reduce energy investment for the development of flight system. This resulted in the shifting of moths from being migrants to residents during the environmental sensitive period (first day post-emergence). This expands our understanding of the adaptive strategy employed by migratory insects to deal with low temperatures and aids in the management of this pest species in China.

At the end of June, 1942, large colonies of a black aphid, indistinguishable from Doralis fabae (Scop.), were found on foxgloves growing on a hillside in Westmorland. This aphid was found commonly in the mountainous districts of Westmorland and Cumberland in 1943, Caernarvonshire in 1945, and Anglesey in 1946. Observations to be described below have indicated that in nature, this aphid spends the whole of its life on foxgloves, and experiments have shown that it does not readily feed upon the economically, important host plants of D. fabae.

A fortunate stay of a few days in July 1919 at Fort Johnston, Lake Nyasa, while waiting instructions, enabled the writer to proceed to the village of Mzeze near the Livingstonia Peninsula, where in 1914–15 some work was carried out on the various insects parasitic on the puparia of this fly.

A survey of 801 poplar trees in central east England in 1999 demonstrated a correlation between crown dieback and infestation by hornet clearwing moth (Sesia apiformis), induced by a period of drought in 1995–1996. To determine whether trees colonised by S. apiformis would subsequently deteriorate and die or whether they could recover despite infestation and damage to the stem, all trees in the original survey were re-assessed in 2001, 2003 and 2005. The repeat surveys showed that trees with 70% or less crown dieback in 1999 replaced their canopy and generally improved by 2005, irrespective of the numbers of S. apiformis in the stem, whereas trees that had 75% or more crown dieback in 1999 either died or declined further. The presence of S. apiformis did not prevent tree recovery, and there was little evidence that infestation slowed the rate of recovery. Populations of S. apiformis, measured in terms of the numbers of adult emergence holes visible in the base of the trees, decreased between 2001 and 2005 at the same time as the amount of dieback visible in the canopy of the poplars markedly decreased. However, the fall in numbers of emergence holes at this time reflected a decline in larval establishment 2–3 years earlier, and indicated that the moth population had responded to a more rapid restoration in the internal state of the trees, which was not reflected immediately by the gradual replacement of dead branches and reduction in dieback symptoms.

Solenopsis invicta Buren (red imported fire ant) are invasive pests that have the capability of major destructive impacts on lifestyle, ecology and economy. Control of this species is dependent, in part, upon ability to estimate the potential spread from newly discovered nests. The potential for spread and the spread characteristics differ between monogyne and polygyne social forms. Prior to this study, differentiation of the two social forms in laboratory test samples commonly used a method involving restriction endonuclease digestion of an amplified Gp-9 fragment. Success of this assay is limited by the quality of DNA, which in the field-collected insects may be affected by temporary storage in unfavourable conditions. Here, we describe an alternative and highly objective assay based upon a high resolution melt technique following preamplification of a significantly shorter Gp-9 fragment than that required for restriction endonuclease digestion. We demonstrate the application of this assay to a S. invicta incursion in Queensland, Australia, using field samples from which DNA may be partially degraded. The reductions in hands-on requirements and overall duration of the assay underpin its suitability for high-throughput testing.

In India the cultivated oyster mushroom Pleurotus sajor-caju (Fr.) Singer is attacked by the larvae of two species of Phoridae, Megaselia pleurota Disney sp. n. and M. scalaris (Loew). The new species is described. Biological data and damage symptoms are reported for both species. Serious economic damage is also caused by a bacterium associated with M. scalaris. The identities of the two Megaselia species, previously reported attacking this fungus, are called into question.

The European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis) infests a wide array of host plants and is considered one of the most serious pests of maize in Europe. Recent studies suggest that individuals feeding on maize in Europe should be referred to O. nubilalis (sensu nov.), while those infesting dicots as Ostrinia scapulalis (sensu nov.). We test if the clear genetic distinctiveness among individuals of O. nubilalis living on maize vs. dicots is tracked by mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). We used fragments of COI and COII genes of 32 individuals traditionally recognized as O. nubilalis collected on three host plants, maize, mugwort and hop, growing in different parts of Poland. In addition, we reconstructed the mtDNA phylogeny of Ostrinia species based on our data and sequences retrieved from GenBank to assess host and/or biogeographic patterns. We also compared haplotype variation found in Poland (east-central Europe) with other regions (Anatolia, Eastern Europe, Balkans, Far East, North America). Our study showed high mtDNA diversity of O. nubilalis in Poland in comparison with other regions and revealed rare haplotypes likely of Asian origin. We did not find distinct mtDNA haplotypes in larvae feeding on maize vs. dicotyledonous plants. Phylogenetic analyses showed an apparent lack of mtDNA divergence among putatively distinct lineages belonging to the O. nubilalis group as identical haplotypes are shared by Asian and European individuals. We argue that human-mediated dispersal, hybridization and sporadic host jumps are likely responsible for the lack of a geographic pattern in mtDNA variation.

The alarm behavior plays a key role in the ecology of aphids, but the site and molecular mechanism for the biosynthesis of aphid alarm pheromone are largely unknown. Farnesyl diphosphate synthase (FPPS) catalyzes the synthesis of FPP, providing the precursor for the alarm pheromone (E)-β-farnesene (EβF), and we speculate that FPPS is closely associated with the biosynthetic pathway of EβF. We firstly analyzed the spatiotemporal expression of FPPS genes by using quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, showing that they were expressed uninterruptedly from the embryonic stage to adult stage, with an obvious increasing trend from embryo to 4th-instar in the green peach aphid Myzus persicae, but FPPS1 had an overall significantly higher expression level than FPPS2; both FPPS1 and FPPS2 exhibited the highest expression in the cornicle area. This expression pattern was verified in Acyrthosiphon pisum, suggesting that FPPS1 may play a more important role in aphids and the cornicle area is most likely the site for EβF biosynthesis. We thus conducted a quantitative measurement of EβF in M. persicae by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The data obtained were used to perform an association analysis with the expression data, revealing that the content of EβF per aphid was significantly correlated with the mean weight per aphid (r = 0.8534, P = 0.0307) and the expression level of FPPS1 (r = 0.9134, P = 0.0109), but not with that of FPPS2 (r = 0.4113, P = 0.4179); the concentration of EβF per milligram of aphid was not correlated with the mean weight per aphid or the expression level of FPPS genes. These data suggest that FPPS1 may play a key role in the biosynthesis of aphid alarm pheromone.

Endoparasitoid species devoid of symbiotic viruses inject secretions derived from their reproductive glands into their hosts during parasitism in order to avoid various immune responses of their hosts. Pimpla turionellae L. (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) is an endoparasitoid that lacks polydnaviruses, and its venom has previously been shown to paralyze the host Galleria mellonella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) and suppress its immune reactions to ensure the egg survival. The present study demonstrates that another female-injected factor calyx fluid extracted from the P. turionellae ovary is also responsible for the suppression of G. mellonella immunity. The total hemocyte counts of G. mellonella decrease after treatment with calyx fluid in a concentration-dependent manner. Significant reductions in cell viability are also observed at all calyx fluid doses both in vivo and in vitro. The analyses of the beads injected into the insects as encapsulation targets revealed that the number of encapsulated beads reduced significantly compared to controls post-calyx fluid injection. The injection of the highest calyx fluid dose (1 female equivalent calyx) is sufficient to completely inhibit the strong encapsulation and melanization reactions of the last instar larvae 24 h post-injection. These results demonstrate that P. turionellae calyx fluid is required to regulate host immunity for successful parasitization.

The Chalcidoidea mentioned in this paper are mostly parasites of the cotton stem-weevil, Pempheres affinis, Fst., in South India. They were bred by Mr. P. N. Krishna Ayyar during the years 1935 to 1938 and were sent in various collections to the Imperial Institute of Entomology for study. Another species, parasite of the Coconut Hispid, Promecotheca papuana, Csiki (antiqua, Ws.), has been added here, its description having been required for biological studies.

Six hundred and twelve anthropods from 11 families collected in and around cattle dung in south-western Australia were screened using a general antiserum against all developmental stages of Musca vetustissima Walker with gel precipitin and immunoelectroosmophoresis (IEO) tests. Positive results were found in Staphylinidae (65%), Histeridae (64%), Carabidae (12%), Dermaptera (21%) and Lycosidae (27%). The relative proportions of predator species varied in different sites, but three staphylinids (Leptacinus socius (Fauvel), Philonthus longicornis Stephens and P. subcingulatus MacLeay) and one histerid (Saprinus sp.) were widespread and numerous and consistently had a high proportion of positive results. Compared to precipitin tests, IEO was found to extend detection times for a single meal from two to five hours for small staphylinids and from 24 to 36 hours for larger carabids. In subsamples of P. subcingulatus and Saprinus sp. collected on the same day at one site, the relative proportions of positive results using IEO and gel precipitation, respectively, were 74 and 23% for P. subcingulatus and 95 and 53% for Saprinus sp.

Increasing evidence has demonstrated that the environmental conditions experienced by parents can shape offspring phenotypes. Here, we examined the effects of the photoperiod and temperature experienced by parents on the incidence of diapause in their progeny in the cabbage beetle, Colaphellus bowringi, using three experiments. The first experiment examined parental diapause incidence under different photoperiods at 25°C and the incidence of diapause in progeny from both non-diapausing and diapausing parents under the same rearing conditions. The results revealed that the incidence of diapause among progeny was exactly opposite to that of their parents, i.e., higher parental diapause incidence led to lower progeny diapause incidence, showing a negative relationship in diapause incidence between the parental generation and the progeny generation. The incidence of diapause among progeny produced by diapausing parents was higher than that in progeny produced by non-diapausing parents. The second experiment examined parental diapause incidence at different temperatures under LD 12:12 and the incidence of diapause in progeny from both non-diapausing and diapausing parents under the same rearing conditions. Similarly, the incidence of diapause in progeny was also opposite to that of their parents. However, the incidence of diapause in progeny produced by non-diapausing parents was different from that in progeny produced by diapausing parents. In the third experiment, naturally diapausing adults were maintained at a constant temperature of 9, 28°C or the mean daily summer temperature of 27.84°C under continuous darkness for 3 months of dormancy. After dormancy, the progeny of these post-diapause parents were reared under different photoperiods at 25°C. The results showed that the incidence of diapause among progeny was higher when their parents experienced high temperatures than when they experienced low temperatures. All results demonstrate that the photoperiod and temperature experienced by parents may significantly affect the diapause incidence among progeny.

The Oshogbo and Ilesha districts of Southern Nigeria are contiguous and are situated in the north-east corner of the Western Province. They are bounded on the north and east by Northern Nigeria, on the west by the Oyo district, and on the south by the Ibadan and Ondo districts of the Western Province, and by a small part of the Central Province.

Oranges, and to a lesser extent grapefruit, have been exported from Jamaica for many years but to an extent considerably under the potentialities of production of the country. In order that the Colony may derive full benefit from natural conditions definitely propitious to the growth of these crops, as well as from the possibilities afforded by an exceptionally advantageous geographical position with regard to world markets and trade routes, the Department of Agriculture is at present organising and developing production of citrus fruits for export on a much larger scale.

The toxicity of naturally weathered deposits of 21 chemicals to larvae of the codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.), was assessed by spraying apple trees in the orchard and testing samples of the fruit picked at various intervals after treatment. Each apple was placed in a separate glass container with one first-instar larva from a laboratory culture, and larval mortality and damage to the fruit (defined as removal of a portion of the skin) were recorded after three days in a constant environment.

The site of entry of the larvae was shown to vary with fruit size, calyx entries decreasing and side entries increasing with increase in the surface area of the fruit.

The relationship between larvicidal activity and age of the spray deposit for periods up to ten weeks after spraying is illustrated graphically; data are presented for fruit damage caused by larvae applied one and three weeks after spraying.

On the basis of larval mortality and fruit damage recorded in tests on deposits up to three weeks after application, a spray containing 0·1 per cent, carbaryl was the most effective, followed by 0·05 per cent, fenthion, while Bayer 5024, Zectran, DDT, DDD (all at 0·l per cent.) and 0·04 per cent, azinphos (as the methyl or ethyl homologue) were only slightly less effective. Deposits from 0·1 per cent. Kepone, 0·02 per cent, diazinon, 0·11 per cent, malathion, 0·01 per cent, parathion and 0·05 per cent, carbophenothion, dimethoate and ethion also caused 90–100 per cent, mortality when fresh, but were less persistent. Fresh deposits from 0·1 per cent, endosulfan, 0·04 per cent, dioxathion, 0·05 per cent, phenkapton, 0·02 per cent, phosphamidon, 0·2 per cent, lead arsenate and 0·6 per cent, ryania only killed 50–88 per cent, of the larvae, and their residual toxicity was proportionately low.

Heavy rain soon after spraying caused a large reduction in deposits from wettable powders but the accompanying reduction in larvicidal activity was shown to be greater in the case of carbaryl than for DDT or DDD.

In this paper a short revision of the African forms of the genus Aridelus (formerly Helorimorpha) is given and one new species is described. Of the seven African species now known (some of which will almost certainly fall later as synonyms) three, including the new one, are parasites of the important Hemipterous pest of coffee, Antestia lineaticollis, Stål.