Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gvvz8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T02:56:02.514Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Psychosis Following Traumatic Brain Injury

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 April 2013

Rachel A. Batty ,
Susan L. Rossell ,
Andrew J.P. Francis  and
Jennie Ponsford
Rachel A. Batty*
Affiliation:
Brain and Psychological Sciences Research Centre (BPsyC), Faculty of Life and Social Sciences, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne VIC 3122, Australia Cognitive Neuropsychiatry Laboratory, Monash-Alfred Psychiatry Research Centre (MAPrc), The Alfred Hospital and Central Clinical School Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia School of Health Science, Psychology and Disability, RMIT University, Bundoora, VIC 3083, Australia
Susan L. Rossell
Affiliation:
Brain and Psychological Sciences Research Centre (BPsyC), Faculty of Life and Social Sciences, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne VIC 3122, Australia Cognitive Neuropsychiatry Laboratory, Monash-Alfred Psychiatry Research Centre (MAPrc), The Alfred Hospital and Central Clinical School Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia
Andrew J.P. Francis
Affiliation:
School of Health Science, Psychology and Disability, RMIT University, Bundoora, VIC 3083, Australia
Jennie Ponsford
Affiliation:
School of Psychology and Psychiatry, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Australia Monash-Epworth Rehabilitation Research Centre, Epworth Hospital, Richmond, VIC 3121, Australia
*
Address for correspondence: Rachel Batty, Neuroimaging Facility, Brain and Psychological Sciences Research Centre, PO Box 218, Hawthorn, VIC, 3122, Australia. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access

Abstract

Psychosis following traumatic brain injury (PFTBI) has received modest empirical investigation, and is subsequently poorly understood, identified and treated. The current article reports on consistencies in PFTBI phenomenology according to the existing peer-reviewed literature. The potential for psychotic symptoms post TBI, aetiological propositions, prevalence, significance of onset latency and injury severity, clinical and cognitive neuropsychological presentation and injury localisation/neuroimaging data are reviewed. Substantial methodological limitations associated with the majority of publications informing this work are also discussed. Despite controversies in the literature, psychosis following TBI appears to be three times more prevalent than psychotic disorders in the general population, and comparable in presentation to other idiopathic psychotic spectrum disorders, including schizophrenia.

Keywords

traumatic brain injurypsychosisschizophreniareview
Type
State of the Art Reviews
Information
Brain Impairment , Volume 14 , Issue 1: State of the art reviews in mental health after traumatic brain injury , May 2013 , pp. 21 - 41
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Australian Academic Press Pty Ltd 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abel, K.M., Drake, R., & Goldstein, J.M. (2010). Sex differences in schizophrenia. International Review of Psychiatry, 22 (5), 417–428.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
AbdelMalik, P., Husted, J., Chow, E.W.C., & Bassett, A.S. (2003). Childhood head injury and expression of schizophrenia in multiply affected families. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60 (3), 231–236.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Achte, K.A., Hillbom, E., & Aalberg, V. (1969). Psychoses following war injuries. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 45, 1–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ahlskog, J.E., Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, & Mayo Clinic Department of Neurology. (1991). Clinical examinations in neurology (6th ed.). St. Louis, MO: Mosby Year-Book.Google Scholar
Albert, N., Bertelsen, M., Thorup, A., Petersen, L., Jeppesen, P., Le Quack, P., . . . Nordentoft, M. (2011). Predictors of recovery from psychosis: Analysis of clinical and social factors associated with recovery among patients with first-episode psychosis after 5 years. Schizophrenia Research, 125 (2–3), 257–256.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American Psychological Association (APA). (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders – Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) (4th ed.). Washington, USA: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
American Psychological Association (APA). (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders – fourth edition, test revision (DSM-IV-TR) (4 ed.). Washington, USA: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Andreasen, N.C., & Olsen, S. (1982). Negative v. positive schizophrenia. Definition and validation. Archives of General Psychiatry, 39 (7), 789–794.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anson, K., & Ponsford, J. (2006). Coping and emotional adjustment following traumatic brain injury. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 21, 248–259.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bachus, S.E., & Kleinman, J.E. (1996). The neuropathology of schizophrenia. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 11, 72–83.Google Scholar
Badcock, J.C., & Dragovic, M. (2006). Schizotypal personality in mature adults. Personality and Individual Differences, 40, 77–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bamrah, J.S., & Johnson, J. (1991). Bipolar affective disorder following head injury. British Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 117–119.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beauchamp, M., Catroppa, C., Godfrey, C., Morse, S., Rosenfeld, J.V., & Anderson, V. (2011). Selective changes in executive functioning ten years after severe childhood traumatic brain injury. Developmental Neuropsychology, 36 (5), 578–595.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belina, S., & Kovacic, S. (2011). CT follow-up and clinical outcome in severe traumatic brain injury patients. Collegium Antropologicum, 35 (4), 1197–1202.Google ScholarPubMed
Bell, V., Halligan, P.W., & Ellis, H.D. (2006). Explaining delusions: A cognitive perspective. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10 (5), 219–226.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bigler, E.D. (2007). Anterior and middle cranial fossa in traumatic brain injury: Relevant neuroanatomy and neuropathology in the study of neuropsychological outcome. Neuropsychology, 21 (5), 515–531.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Borgwardt, S.J., Riecher-Rossler, A., Dazzan, P., Chitnis, X., Aston, J., Drewe, M., . . . McGuire, P.K. (2007). Regional gray matter volume abnormalities in the at risk mental state. Biological Psychiatry, 61 (10), 1148–1156.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bourque, F., van der Ven, E., Fusar-Poli, P., & Malla, A. (2012). Immigration, social environment and onset of psychotic disorders. Current Pharmaceutical Design, 18 (4), 518–526.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Broome, M.R., Fusar-Poli, P., Matthiasson, P., Woolley, J.B., Valmaggia, L., Johns, L.C., . . . McGuire, P.K. (2010). Neural correlates of visuospatial working memory in the ‘at-risk mental state’. Psychological Medicine, 40, 1987–1999.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bruns, J. Jr, & Hauser, W. (2003). The epidemiology of traumatic brain injury. A review. Epilepsia, 44 (suppl 10), 2–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buckley, P., Stack, J.P., Madigan, C., O'Callaghan, E., Larkin, C., Redmond, O., . . . Waddington, J.L. (1993). Magnetic resonance imaging of schizophrenia-like psychoses associated with cerebral trauma: Clinicopathological correlates. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150 (1), 146–148.Google ScholarPubMed
Burg, J.S., McGuire, L.M., Burright, R.G., & Donovick, P.J. (1996). Prevalence of traumatic brain injury in an inpatient psychiatric population. Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings, 3 (3), 243–251.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, P.V. (2000). Diurnal variation in Cotard's syndrome (copresent with Capgras delusion) following traumatic brain injury. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 34, 684–687.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corcoran, C., & Malaspina, D. (2007). Traumatic brain injury as a risk factor for schizophrenia. Current Psychiatry Reviews, 3, 25–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Csernansky, J.G., Wang, L., Jones, D., Rastogi-Cruz, D., Posener, J.A., Heydebrand, G., . . . Miller, M.I. (2002). Hippocampal deformities in schizophrenia characterized by high dimensional brain mapping. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159 (12), 2000–2006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
David, A.S., & Prince, M. (2005). Psychosis following head injury: A critical review. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 76 (suppl 1), i53–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davison, K., & Bagley, C.R. (1969). Schizophrenia-like psychoses associated with organic disorders of the central nervous system: A review of the literature. British Journal of Psychiatry, 114, 113–162.Google Scholar
DeKosky, S.T., Kochanek, P.M., Clark, R.S.B., Ciallella, J.R., & Dixon, C.E. (1998). Secondary injury after head trauma: Subacute and long-term mechanisms. Seminars in Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 3 (3), 176–185.Google ScholarPubMed
Egan, M.F., Hyde, T.M., Bonomo, J.B., Mattay, V.S., Bigelow, L.B., Goldberg, T.E., . . . Weinbereger, D.R. (2001). Relative risk of neurological signs in siblings of patients with schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158 (11), 1827–1834.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellison-Wright, I., Glahn, D., Laird, A., Thelen, S.M., & Bullmore, E. (2008). The anatomy of first-episode and chronic schizophrenia: An anatomical likelihood estimation meta-analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165 (8), 1015–1023.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Evans, J. J., Chua, S.E., McKenna, P.J., & Wilson, B.A. (1997). Assessment of the dysexecutive syndrome in schizophrenia. Psychological Medicine, 27 (3), 635–646.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fann, J.R., Burington, B., Leonetti, A., Jaffe, K., Katon, W.J., & Thompson, R.S. (2004). Psychiatric illness following traumatic brain injury in an adult health maintenance organization population. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61, 53–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fann, J.R., Leonetti, A., Jaffe, K., Katon, W.J., Cummings, P., & Thompson, R.S. (2002). Psychiatric illness and subsequent traumatic brain injury: A case control study. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 72, 615–620.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feinberg, T.E., Eaton, L.A., Roane, D.M., & Giacino, J.T. (1999). Multiple Fregoli delusions after traumatic brain injury. Cortex, 35, 373–387.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fleminger, S. (2008). Long-term psychiatric disorders after traumatic brain injury. European Journal of Anaesthesiology, 25 (suppl 42), 123–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Friston, K.J., Liddle, P.F., Frith, C.D., Hirsch, S.R., & Frackowiak, R.S. (1992). The left medial temporal region and schizophrenia. A PET study. Brain, 115 (2), 367–382.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fujii, D., & Ahmed, I. (1996). Psychosis secondary to traumatic brain injury. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology, and Behavioral Neurology, 9, 133–138.Google Scholar
Fujii, D., & Ahmed, I. (2001). Risk factors in psychosis secondary to traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 13 (1), 61–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fujii, D., & Ahmed, I. (2002a). Psychotic disorder following traumatic brain injury: A conceptual framework. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 7 (1), 41–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fujii, D., & Ahmed, I. (2002b). Characteristics of psychotic disorder due to traumatic brain injury: An analysis of case studies in the literature. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 14, 130–140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fujii, D., Ahmed, I., & Hishinuma, E. (2004). A neuropsychological comparison of psychotic disorder following traumatic brain injury, traumatic brain injury without psychotic disorder, and schizophrenia. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 16 (3), 306–314.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fusar-Poli, P., McGuire, S., & Borgwardt, S. (2011). Mapping prodromal psychosis: A critical review of neuroimaging studies. European Psychiatry, 27 (3), 181–191.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gard, D.E., Fisher, M., Garrett, C., Genevsky, A., & Vinogradov, S. (2009). Motivation and its relationship to neurocognition, social cognition, and functional outcome in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 115 (1), 74–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gennarelli, T.A., & Graham, D.I. (1998). Neuropathology of the head injuries. Seminars in Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 3 (3), 160–175.Google ScholarPubMed
Gilleen, J., & David, A.S. (2005). The cognitive neuropsychiatry of delusions: From psychopathology to neuropsychology and back again. Psychological Medicine, 35, 5–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glantz, L.A., Gilmore, J.H., Lieberman, J.A., & Jarskog, L.F. (2006). Apoptotic mechanisms and the synaptic pathology of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 81, 47–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goreishizadeh, M.A., Mohagheghi, A., Farhang, S., & Alizadeh, L. (2012). Psychosocial disabilities in patients with schizophrenia. Iranian Journal of Public Health, 41 (5), 116–121.Google ScholarPubMed
Gould, K., Ponsford, J., Schönberger, M., & Johnston, L. (2011). The nature, frequency and course of psychiatric disorders in the first year after traumatic brain injury, a prospective study. Psychological Medicine, 41 (10), 2099–2109.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guerreiro, D.F., Navarro, R., Silva, M., Carvalho, M., & Gois, C. (2009). Psychosis secondary to traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 23 (4), 358–361.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harrison, G., Whitley, E., Rasmussen, F., Lewis, G., Dalman, C., & Gunnell, D. (2006). Risk of schizophrenia and other non-affective psychosis among individuals exposed to head injury: Case control study. Schizophrenia Research, 88 (1), 119–126.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hartley, S., Haddock, G., & Barrowclough, C. (2012). Anxiety and depression and their links with delusions and hallucinations in people with a dual diagnosis of psychosis and substance misuse: A study using data from a randomised control trial. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 50 (1), 65–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henry, J.D., & Crawford, J.R. (2004). A meta-analytic review of verbal fluency performance in patients with traumatic brain injury. Neuropsychology, 18 (4), 621–628.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hillbom, E. (1960). After-effects of brain injuries. Acta Psychiatrica Neurologica Scandinavica, 142, 1–195.Google Scholar
Hiott, D.W., & Labbate, L. (2002). Anxiety disorders associated with traumatic brain injuries. NeuroRehabilitation, 17, 345–355.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ho, B.C., Andreasen, N.C., Nopoulos, P., Arndt, S., Magnotta, V., & Flaum, M. (2003). Progressive structural brain abnormalities and their relationship to clinical outcome: A longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging study early in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 585–594.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoofien, D., Gilboa, A., Vakil, E., & Donovick, P. J. (2001). Traumatic brain injury (TBI) 10–20 years later: A comprehensive outcome study of psychiatric symptomatology, cognitive abilities and psychosocial functioning. Brain Injury, 15 (3), 189–209.Google Scholar
Horn, H., Federspiel, A., Wirth, M., Muller, T., Wiest, R., Walter, S., . . . Strik, W. (2010). Gray matter volume differences specific to formal thought disorder in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research, 182 (2), 183–186.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hughes, M.E., Fulham, W.R., Johnston, P.J., & Michie, P.T. (2012). Stop-signal response inhibition in schizophrenia: Behavioural, event-related potential and functional neuroimaging data. Biological Psychology, 89 (1), 220–231.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jablensky, A., Sartorius, N., Ernberg, G., Anker, M., Korten, A., Cooper, J.E., . . . Bertelsen, A. (1992). Schizophrenia: Manifestations, incidence and course in different cultures. A World Health Organization ten-country study. Psychological Medicine, 20 (monogr. suppl.), 1–97.Google ScholarPubMed
Jessen, F., Scheef, L., Germeshausen, L., Tawo, Y., Kockler, M., Kuhn, K.U., . . . Heun, R. (2003). Reduced hippocampal activation during encoding and recognition of words in schizophrenia patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 106 (7), 1305–1312.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jorge, R.E., Robinson, R.G., Moser, D., Tateno, A., Crespo-Facorro, B., & Arndt, S.V. (2004). Major depression following traumatic brain injury. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61, 42–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Joshua, N., & Rossell, S.L. (2009). Configural face processing in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 112 (1–3), 99–103.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kay, S.R., Fiszbein, A., & Opler, L.A. (1987). The Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) for schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 13 (2), 261–276.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendler, K.S., Gallagher, T.J., Abelson, J.M., & Kessler, R.C. (1996). Lifetime prevalence, demographic risk factors, and diagnostic validity of nonaffective psychosis as assessed in a US community sample. The National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53 (11), 1022–1031.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, E. (2008). Does traumatic brain injury predispose individuals to develop schizophrenia? Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 21 (3), 286–289.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, E., Lauterbach, E.C., Reeve, A., Arciniegas, D.B., Coburn, K.L., Mendez, M.F., . . . Coffey, E.C. (2007). Neuropsychiatric complications of traumatic brain injury: A critical review of the literature (a report by the ANPA Committee on Research). Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 19 (2), 106–127.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koponen, S., Taiminen, T., Kurki, T., Portin, R., Isoniemi, H., Himanen, L., . . . Tenovuo, O. (2006). MRI findings and Axis I and II psychiatric disorders after traumatic brain injury: A 30-year retrospective follow-up study. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 146 (3), 263–270.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koponen, S., Taiminen, T., Portin, R., Himanen, L., Isoniemi, H., Heinonen, H., . . . Tenovuo, O. (2002). Axis I and II psychiatric disorders after traumatic brain injury: A 30-year follow-up study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159 (8), 1315–1321.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kulhara, P., & Chakrabarti, S. (2001). Culture and schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders. Psychiatrics Clinics of North America, 24 (3), 449–464.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kumar, C.T., Christodoulou, T., Vyas, N.S., Kyriakopoulos, M., Corrigall, R., Reichenberg, A., . . . Frangou, S. (2010). Deficits in visual sustained attention differentiate genetic liability and disease expression for schizophrenia from bipolar disorder. Schizophrenia Research, 124, 1–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lawrie, S.M., Whalley, H., Kestelman, J.N., Abukmeil, S.S., Byrne, M., Hodges, A., . . . Johnstone, E.C. (1999). Magnetic resonance imaging of brain in people at high risk of developing schizophrenia. Lancet, 353, 30–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewis, A. (1942). Discussion on differential diagnosis and treatment of post-contusional states. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 35, 607–614.Google Scholar
Lezak, M.D. (1979). Recovery of memory and learning functions following traumatic brain injury. Cortex, 15, 63–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liddle, P.F. (1987). The symptoms of chronic schizophrenia. A re-examination of the positive–negative dichotomy. British Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 145–151.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mainio, A., Kyllönen, T., Viilo, K., Hakko, H., Särkioja, T., & Räsänen, P. (2007). Traumatic brain injury, psychiatric disorders and suicide: A population-based study of suicide victims during the years 1988–2004 in Northern Finland. Brain Injury, 21 (8), 851–855.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Malaspina, D., Goetz, R.R., Friedman, J.H., Kaufmann, C.A., Faraone, S.V., Tsuang, M., . . . Blehar, M.C. (2001). Traumatic brain injury and schizophrenia in members of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder pedigrees. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 440–446.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mathalon, D.H., Sullivan, E.V., Lim, K.O., & Pfefferbaum, A. (2001). Progressive brain volume changes in the clinical course of schizophrenia in men: A longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58 (2), 148–157.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Max, J.E., Lindgren, S.D., Knutson, C., Pearson, C.S., Ihrig, D., & Welborn, A. (1997). Child and adolescent traumatic brain injury: Psychiatric findings from a paediatric outpatient speciality clinic. Brain Injury, 11 (10), 699–712.Google Scholar
McAllister, T.W., & Ferrell, R.B. (2002). Evaluation and treatment of psychosis after traumatic brain injury. NeuroRehabilitation, 17 (4), 357–368.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGrath, J., Saha, S., Chant, D., & Welham, J. (2008). Schizophrenia: A concise overview of incidence, prevalence, and mortality. Epidemiologic Reviews, 30, 67–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGuffin, P., Asherson, P., Owen, M., & Farmer, A. (1994). The strength of the genetic effect. Is there room for an environmental influence in the aetiology of schizophrenia? British Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 593–599.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Medalia, A., & Brekke, J. (2010). In search of a theoretical structure for understanding motivation in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 36 (5), 912–918.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murrey, G.J., Starzinski, D.T., & LeBlanc, A.J. (2004). Base rates of traumatic brain injury history in adults admitted to state psychiatric hospitals: A 3-year study. Rehabilitation Psychology, 49 (3), 259–261.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Must, A., Janka, Z., & Horvath, S. (2011). Schizophrenia, environment and epigenetics. Neuropsychopharmacologica Hungarica, 13 (4), 211–217.Google ScholarPubMed
Myers, N.L. (2011). Update: Schizophrenia across cultures. Current Psychiatry Reports, 13 (4), 305–311.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Myin-Germeys, I., Krabbendam, L., & van Os, J. (2003). Continuity of psychotic symptoms in the community. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 16, 443–449.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nakagami, E., Hoe, M., & Brekke, J.S. (2010). The prospective relationships among intrinsic motivation, neurocognition, and psychosocial functioning in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 36 (5), 935–948.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Newburn, G. (1998). Psychiatric disorders associated with traumatic brain injury. Optimal treatment. CNS Drugs, 9 (6), 441–456.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nielsen, A.S., Mortensen, P.B., O'Callaghan, E., Morsa, O., & Ewald, H. (2002). Is head injury a risk factor for schizophrenia? Schizophrenia Research, 55 (1), 93–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Callaghan, E., Larkin, C., Redmond, O., Stack, J., Ennis, J.T., & Waddington, J.L. (1988). Early-onset schizophrenia after teenage head injury. A case report with magnetic resonance imaging. British Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 394–396.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pantelis, C., Velakoulis, D., McGorry, P.D., Wood, S.J., Suckling, J., Phillips, L., . . . McGuire, P.K. (2003). Neuroanatomical abnormalities before and after onset of psychosis: A cross-sectional and longitudinal MRI comparison.Lancet, 361 (9354), 281–288.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perala, J., Suvisaari, J., Saarni, S.I., Kuoppasalmi, K., Isometsa, E., Pirkola, S., . . . Lonngvist, J. (2007). Lifetime prevalence of psychotic and bipolar I disorders in a general population. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64 (1), 19–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ponsford, J. (2012). Dealing with the impact of TBI on psychological adjustment and relationships. In Ponsford, J., Sloan, S. & Snow, P.. (Eds.), Traumatic brain injury: Rehabilitation for everyday adaptive living (pp. 226–262). London, UK: Psychology Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ponsford, J.L., Draper, K., & Schönberger, M. (2008). Functional outcome 10 years after traumatic brain injury: Its relationship with demographic, injury severity, and cognitive and emotional status. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 14, 233–242.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ponsford, J.L., & Kinsella, G. (1992). Attentional deficits following closed-head injury. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 14 (5), 822–838.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ponsford, J.L., Sloan, S., & Snow, P. (2012). Traumatic brain injury: Rehabilitation for everyday adaptive living (2nd ed.). London, UK: Psychology Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pridmore, S., & Bowe, G. (2011). Neuroimaging in the field of psychoses. Malaysian Journal of Medical Science, 18 (1), 6–11.Google ScholarPubMed
Raghupathi, R. (2004). Cell death mechanisms following traumatic brain injury. Brain Pathology, 14, 215–222.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rao, V., & Lyketsos, C.G. (2003). Psychiatric aspects of traumatic brain injury: New solutions to an old problem. International Review of Psychiatry, 15, 299–301.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reitan, R.M., & Wolfson, D. (1985). The Halstead–Reitan Neuropsycholgical Test Battery: Therapy and clinical interpretation. Tucson, AZ: Neuropsychological Press.Google Scholar
Rink, A., Fung, K., Trojanowski, J.Q., Lee, V.M.Y., Neugebauer, E., & McIntosh, T.K. (1995). Evidence of apoptotic cell death after experimental traumatic brain injury in the rat. American Journal of Pathology, 147 (6), 1575–1583.Google ScholarPubMed
Rios, M., Perianez, J.A., & Munoz-Cespedes, J.M. (2004). Attentional control and slowness of information processing after severe traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 18 (3), 257–272.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ronne-Engstrom, E., & Winkler, T. (2006). Continuous EEG monitoring in patients with traumatic brain injury reveals a high incidence of epileptiform activity. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 114 (1), 47–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ross, D.E. (2011). Review of longitudinal studies of MRI brain volumetry in patients with traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 25 (13–14), 1271–1278.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ross, D.E., Ochs, A.L., Seabaugh, J.M., Demark, M.F., Shrader, C.R., Marwitz, J.H., . . . Havranek, M.D. (2012). Progressive brain atrophy in patients with chronic neuropsychiatric symptoms after mild traumatic brain injury: A preliminary study. Brain Injury, 26 (12), 1500 1509.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rossell, S.L., Batty, R.A., & Hughes, L. (2010). Impaired semantic memory in the formation and maintenance of delusions post-traumatic brain injury: A new cognitive model of delusions. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 260 (8), 571–581.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rossell, S.L., & David, A.S. (2006). Are semantic deficits in schizophrenia due to problems with access or storage? Schizophrenia Research, 82 (2–3), 121–134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rossler, W., Hengartner, M.P., Angst, J., & Ajdacic-Gross, V. (2012). Linking substance use with symptoms of subclinical psychosis in a community cohort over 30 years. Addiction, 107 (6), 1174–1184.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rutherford, W.H., Merrett, J.D., & McDonald, J.R. (1977). Sequelae of concussion caused by minor head injuries. Lancet, 309, 1–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sachdev, P., Smith, J.S., & Cathcart, S. (2001). Schizophrenia-like psychosis following traumatic brain injury: A chart-based descriptive and case control study. Psychological Medicine, 31, 231–239.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saha, S., Chant, D., Welham, J., & McGrath, J. (2005). A systematic review of the prevalence of schizophrenia. PLoS Medicine, 2 (5), e141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Senathi-Raja, D.R., Ponsford, J.L., & Schönberger, M. (2010). Association of age wih long-term psychosocial outcome following traumatic brain injury. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 41 (8), 666–673.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silver, J.M., Kramer, R., Greenwald, S., & Weissman, M. (2001). The association between head injuries and psychiatric disorders: Findings from the New Haven NIMH Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study. Brain Injury, 15 (11), 935–945.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smieskova, R., Fusar-Poli, P., Riecher-Rossler, A., & Borgwardt, S. (2012). Neuroimaging and resilience factors: Staging of the at-risk mental state? Current Pharmaceutical Design, 18 (4), 416–421.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Snow, P., & Ponsford, J. (2012). Impairment of consciousness. In Ponsford, J., Sloan, S. & Snow, P.. (Eds.), Traumatic brain injury: Rehabilitation for everyday adaptive living (pp. 34–65). London, UK: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Solomon, D.A., & Malloy, P.F. (1992). Alcohol, head injury, and neuropsychological function. Neuropsychology Review, 3 (3), 249–280.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steen, R., Mull, C., McClure, R., Hamer, R., & Lieberman, J. (2006). Brain volume in first episode schizophrenia: Systematic review and meta-analysis of magnetic resonance imaging studies. British Journal of Psychiatry, 188, 510–518.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stewart, B., & Brennan, D.M. (2005). Auditory hallucinations after right temporal gyri resection. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 17, 243–245.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sutterland, A.L., Dieleman, J., Storosum, J.G., Voordouw, B.A., Kroon, J., Veldhuis, J., . . . Sturkenboom, M.C. (2013). Annual incidence rate of schizophrenia and schizophrenia spectrum disorders in a longitudinal population-based cohort study. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1007/s00127-013-0651-9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Switaj, P., Anczewska, M., Chrostek, A., Sabariego, C., Cieza, A., & Chatterji, S. (2012). Disability and schizophrenia: A systematic review of experienced psychosocial difficulties. BMC Psychiatry, 12, 193–205.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tate, D.F., Khedraki, R., Neeley, E.S., Ryser, D.K., & Bigler, E.D. (2011). Cerebral volume loss, cognitive deficit, and neuropsychological performance: Comparative measures of brain atrophy: II. Traumatic brain injury. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 17 (2), 308–316.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Teasdale, G.M., & Jennett, B. (1974). Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness: A practical scale. Lancet, 2, 81–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Verdoux, H., & van Os, J. (2002). Psychotic symptoms in non-clinical populations and the continuum of psychosis. Schizophrenia Research, 54, 59–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wallace, B.E., Wagner, A.K., Wagner, E.P., & McDeavitt, J.T. (2001). A history and review of quantitative electroencephalography in traumatic brain injury. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 16 (2), 165–190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
West, S.L. (2011). Substance use among persons with traumatic brain injury: A review. NeuroRehabilitation, 29 (1), 1–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Westermeyer, J. (2006). Comorbid schizophrenia and substance abuse: A review of epidemiology and course. American Journal on Additions, 15 (5), 345–355.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whelan-Goodinson, R., Ponsford, J.L., Johnston, L., & Grant, F. (2009). Psychiatric disorders following traumatic brain injury: Their nature and frequency. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 24 (5), 324–332.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilcox, J.A., & Nasrallah, H.A. (1986). Childhood head trauma and psychosis. Psychiatry Research, 21 (4), 303–306.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wisdom, J.P., Manuel, J.I., & Drake, R.E. (2011). Substance use disorder among people with first-episode psychosis: A systematic review of course and treatment. Psychiatric Services, 62 (9), 1007–1012.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zierhut, K., Bogerts, B., Schott, B., Fenker, D., Walter, M., Albrecht, D., . . . Schiltz, K. (2010). The role of hippocampus dysfunction in deficient memory encoding and positive symptoms in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research, 183 (3), 187–194.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zierhut, K.C., Grabmann, R., Kaufmann, J., Steiner, J., Bogerts, B., & Schiltz, K. (2013). Hippocampal CA1 deformity is related to symptom severity and antipsychotic dosage in schizophrenia. Brain, 136 (3), 804–814.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed