Addressing mental health issues is a core concern in the treatment of people with traumatic brain injury (TBI) and their families. Mental health issues are widespread after TBI and arise whether the injury was sustained in civilian or conflict contexts. In the Guest Editorial, Simon Fleminger outlines key issues and conundrums that arise in the intertwining of mental health problems and TBI, as well as the importance of integrating the treatment of mental health conditions into neurorehabilitation.

The prevalence and determinates of depression in 67 older adults were assessed at 1 year post-stroke. The sample had an average age of 74 years (SD = 7, range = 60–87 years) at the time of their stroke and 52% were female. The relative contribution of demographic (gender, age), medical (history of previous stroke, hemispheric location of stroke), two measures of functional independence (Barthel Activities of Daily Living (ADL) Index and Nottingham Extended ADL Index) and aspects of cognitive functioning (IQ, attention, verbal memory and verbal fluency) to depression (Geriatric Depression Scale) was investigated. Results indicated that 51% of patients had impairment in activities of daily living, and 33% reported clinically significant levels of depression. Prevalence of cognitive impairment ranged from 28% on a measure of basic cognitive functioning through to 87% on a measure of complex attention. The results from a hierarchical multiple regression analysis showed that the combination of variables explained 40% of the variance in depression scores. In addition, the two individual variables of history of previous stroke and functional independence made significant unique contributions to the variance in depression scores. These results demonstrate the wide variety of factors involved and provide support for a biopsychosocial model of post-stroke depression.

There is a scarcity of research investigating interdisciplinary early rehabilitation intervention models for people with low levels of responsiveness following acquired brain injury. This is particularly problematic for service models in acute hospital settings where early rehabilitation of such patients may be assigned a low priority in comparison to other competing demands. This pilot study investigated the feasibility of implementing an interdisciplinary early rehabilitation intervention in an acute neurosciences ward within existing staffing, and describes clinical changes among intervention participants. A prospective longitudinal study, with a matched historical control (individually matched by Glasgow Coma Scale) was undertaken. Prospective intervention participants (n = 13) received up to twice-weekly interdisciplinary intervention in addition to usual care. Matched historical controls (n = 13) received only usual care. Implementing an interdisciplinary early intervention proved feasible in this acute care setting. Significant improvement (alpha = .05) among the patients receiving the interdisciplinary intervention was observed across all clinical outcomes, including: Coma Recovery Scale-Revised, Glasgow Coma Scale, Mental Status Questionnaire, Royal Brisbane Hospital Outcome Measure for Swallowing, selected subtests of the Functional Independence Measure, Acquired Brain Injury Physiotherapy Assessment and the Clinical Outcomes Variable Scale. A future randomised clinical trial is warranted.

Primary objective: To investigate which variables predict referral for rehabilitation in the participants of the Tasmanian Neurotrauma Register (TNTR), a large (N = 1226) prospective population-based study of adult traumatic brain injury (TBI) in southern Tasmania.

Method: Over a 3-year period, only 54 TBI patients were referred by hospital or local health services for public community rehabilitation, with 121 referred by TNTR research assistants. A further 247 accessed private rehabilitation and 804 received no rehabilitation. These four groups were compared on a range of variables to identify which factors determine referral.

Results: Those referred by hospital or community services and those receiving private rehabilitation had more severe TBI (p < .001), greater disability (p < .001) and were more likely to have been hospitalised post-injury (p < .001). The TNTR-referred group reported more post-concussion symptoms (PCS; p < .001), anxiety (p < .001) and depression (p < .001). TNTR-referral was more likely (p < .001) following assault, compared with other causes of injury. Sixteen per cent of those not referred for rehabilitation had suffered moderate or severe TBI.

Conclusions: These results indicate that no recognised pathway existed for non-hospitalised TBI patients to access public rehabilitation, even if they were reporting high levels of PCS and psychological distress. Furthermore, routine follow-up to assess rehabilitation needs was not occurring in Tasmania, even for some with moderate and severe TBI.

Those after traumatic brain injury (TBI) who suffer mental health problems, by which I mean problems that a psychiatrist might understand as falling within their remit, suffer a double whammy. Not only do they suffer the stigma of the disabled, but even within this group they may be stigmatised. It has often been my experience that while families will allow for their injured loved one to be under the care of rehabilitation services, including a psychologist, they baulk at the possibility that their loved one may need psychiatric care. This comes to a head when it comes to detaining a patient, in England and Wales, under the Mental Health Act; this may be vigorously resisted by family because of what they infer this says about their loved one's sanity.

Background: To retrain upper limb function after stroke, a high dose of activity-related therapy is recommended. However, observational studies indicate that the dose undertaken is minimal. While it is speculated that those with severe disability will perform less therapy, this remains to be explored.

Objective: Quantify the dose and content of upper limb therapy performed by stroke survivors with severe upper limb disability during routine inpatient rehabilitation.

Methods: Therapy provided by physiotherapists and occupational therapists to 32 stroke survivors receiving inpatient rehabilitation over 20 weekdays was recorded. Dose of individual and group therapy was analysed by discipline and severity of upper and lower limb disability. Dose and content of individual therapy was also analysed by functional domain.

Results: On average, 46 minutes of individual and 11 minutes of group upper limb therapy were provided per participant, per day. Occupational therapists provided a higher dose of both individual and group therapy compared to physiotherapists (p < 0.0005). Findings suggest that greater residual upper and lower limb movement can lead to provision of a higher dose of activity-related therapy. Within individual therapy, a higher dose (29 versus 17 minutes, p < 0.002) and greater number (1218 versus 549) of impairment- than activity-related interventions were administered.

Conclusions: The dose of activity-related upper limb therapy provided to stroke survivors with severe disability was limited. There is a need to identify interventions and models of service delivery that can increase the intensity and appropriateness of therapy that stroke survivors with severe disability undertake during inpatient rehabilitation.

Symptoms of neurobehavioural disability acquired through brain injury, especially aggression, are associated with severe social handicap. Differences in terminology have resulted in varying estimates, but aggressive behaviour disorder appears to be characteristic of survivors at some point in their recovery journey. This paper provides a brief review regarding the prevalence, development and causes of aggression associated with acquired brain injury (ABI), and what can be done to help manage them. The advantages of using standardised measures conceptualised for ABI in the assessment and formulation of aggressive behaviour disorders are especially highlighted. A range of treatment methods and the evidence base relating to these are described. The contribution of pharmacological therapies, cognitive behavioural therapy and behavioural interventions are explored. It is argued that the strongest evidence base is associated with behaviour therapy, especially when carried out in the context of neurobehavioural rehabilitation, and two case studies are described to illustrate the clinical advantages of interventions derived from operant theory. Comparative lack of ABI experts trained in the management of post-acute behaviour disorders remains a limiting factor.

Background: International research identifies indigeneity as a risk factor for traumatic brain injury (TBI). Aotearoa New Zealand studies show that mokopuna (grandchildren; used here to encompass the ages and stages of infant, child and adolescent development and those in young adulthood) are significantly overrepresented in TBI populations. The important role of whānau (family) is also well established in child and adolescent TBI scholarship. Despite awareness of these factors, no studies have been identified that explore whānau knowledge about mokopuna TBI. The aim of this study was to explore two questions: (1) What do Māori people say about mokopuna TBI in the context of the Māori cultural belief that the head is the most sacred part of the body? and (2) How could this information be used to build theory that could inform addressing the rehabilitation needs of this group?

Method: Eighteen marae wānanga (culture-specific fora in traditional meeting houses) were held. The wānanga typically lasted approximately 2 hours. Footage and written transcripts were analysed using Rangahau Kaupapa Māori (Māori indigenous research methods).

Results: The wairua theory of mokopuna TBI proposes that TBI not only injures brain anatomy and physiology but also injures wairua (defined here as a unique connection between Māori and all aspects of the universe). Injury to wairua means that culturally determined interventions are both indicated and expected. The wairua theory of mokopuna TBI thereby provides a guide to intervention.

Conclusion: A Māori theory of mokopuna TBI has been identified which describes a culture-specific aspect of TBI. This theory proposes that pre-existing whānau knowledge salient to TBI is critical to optimising recovery. Further research is needed to test this theory not only in TBI but also in other areas such as in mental illness, neurodegenerative disease and addiction.

Objective: Very few studies have examined permanent post-concussion symptoms (PCSs) after mild traumatic brain injury (MTBI). None have reported the nature of such symptoms. Our recent study was the first to report on a wide range of factors affecting PCSs in a representative sample of such patients. This paper presents the frequencies of the different PCSs experienced by this group and compares them with PCSs at earlier stages post injury.

Method: One hundred consecutively referred patients to a Community Head Injury Service in Buckinghamshire, UK, for the treatment of long-term PCSs after MTBI were invited to participate in the original study. Those consenting to do so (n = 24, mean time post injury = 6.9 years) completed a Rivermead Post Concussion Symptoms Questionnaire. The frequency of the types of symptoms reported is presented. These are then contrasted with comparable PCS presentations at 7–10 days and 6 months post injury from two other studies.

Results: Fatigue was reported by all long-term patients. Poor concentration, sleep disturbance, taking longer to think and irritability were the other most frequently endorsed permanent symptoms. The least reported were blurred/double vision, photophobia, nausea, headache and dizziness. A similar pattern was present in those at earlier stages post injury.

Conclusions: The most common permanent PCSs may be those best conceptualised as the more cognitively and emotionally based symptoms, and the least common the more somatically based ones. There may be some consistency in the nature of PCSs reported over time.

The Austin Maze is a neuropsychological assessment tool used to measure cognitive function. A computerised version of the tool has recently been developed and shown to be equivalent to the conventional version in terms of performance. However, controversy remains regarding which specific cognitive constructs the conventional and computer versions of the Austin Maze purport to measure. The aim of this study was to investigate which cognitive constructs are associated with Austin Maze performance and whether these constructs remain equivalent across conventional and computer versions. Sixty-three healthy people completed both conventional and computerised versions of the Austin Maze in addition to a number of established measures of planning, error utilisation, working memory, visuospatial ability and visuospatial memory. Results from a series of regression analyses demonstrated that both versions of the Austin Maze were predominantly associated with visuospatial ability and visuospatial memory. No executive measures, including those of planning, error utilisation or working memory, significantly contributed to any Austin Maze performances. This study complements previous research and supports equivalency of the conventional and computer versions of the Austin Maze.

Background: Application of salient cultural knowledge held by families following child and adolescent traumatic brain injury (TBI) has yet to be documented in the literature. While the importance of the family is a well-established determinant of enhanced outcomes in child and adolescent TBI, the emphasis to date has been on the leading role of professional knowledge. The role of whānau (extended family) is recognised as an essential aspect of hauora (wellbeing) for Māori, who are overrepresented in TBI populations. However, whānau knowledge systems as a potent resource for enhancing recovery outcomes have not previously been explored. This paper describes the development of an indigenous intervention, Te Waka Oranga.

Method: Rangahau Kaupapa Māori (Māori determined research methods) theory building was used to develop a TBI intervention for working with Māori. The intervention emerged from the findings and analysis of data from 18 wānanga (culturally determined fora) held on rural, remote and urban marae (traditional meeting houses).

Results: The intervention framework, called Te Waka Oranga, describes a process akin to teams of paddlers working together to move a waka (canoe, vessel) in a desired direction of recovery. This activity occurs within a Māori defined space, enabling both world views, that of the whānau and the clinical world, to work together. Whānau knowledge therefore has a vital role alongside clinical knowledge in maximising outcomes in mokopuna (infants, children, adolescents and young adults) with TBI.

Conclusion: Te Waka Oranga provides for the equal participation of two knowledge systems, that of whānau and of clinical staff in their work in the context of mokopuna TBI. This framework challenges the existing paradigm of the role of families in child and adolescent TBI rehabilitation by highlighting the essential role of cultural knowledge and practices held within culturally determined groups. Further research is needed to test the intervention.

Psychosis following traumatic brain injury (PFTBI) has received modest empirical investigation, and is subsequently poorly understood, identified and treated. The current article reports on consistencies in PFTBI phenomenology according to the existing peer-reviewed literature. The potential for psychotic symptoms post TBI, aetiological propositions, prevalence, significance of onset latency and injury severity, clinical and cognitive neuropsychological presentation and injury localisation/neuroimaging data are reviewed. Substantial methodological limitations associated with the majority of publications informing this work are also discussed. Despite controversies in the literature, psychosis following TBI appears to be three times more prevalent than psychotic disorders in the general population, and comparable in presentation to other idiopathic psychotic spectrum disorders, including schizophrenia.

Paediatric acquired brain injury (ABI) is the most common cause of acquired disability in childhood. It frequently results in significant personality, cognitive, emotional and behavioural changes, and consequent impairment in independent functioning, education, employment and interpersonal relationships. Additionally, paediatric ABI impacts on the entire family system, with parents commonly reporting significant distress and adjustment difficulties. Despite this, there is currently limited research into effective programmes to support families following their child's ABI. This protocol describes a wait-list randomised controlled trial of a behavioural family intervention plus a parent stress management programme for paediatric ABI. Interventions will be conducted with parents in a group format, aiming to improve child outcomes by improving parenting behaviour and coping. Outcomes assessed will be: (i) child behaviour and emotional outcome as measured by parent and teacher reports; (ii) parental style and confidence; (iii) parental adjustment (stress, anxiety and depression symptoms); (iv) family functioning; (v) parent relationship; and (vi) parent psychological flexibility. Assessments will be via questionnaires conducted pre-, mid- and post- intervention, and at a 6-month follow-up. The theoretical basis, study hypotheses, methods and planned analyses are described.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is prevalent among veterans and military personnel. These individuals present with increased rates of co-morbid mental health conditions and are at increased risk for suicide. Evidence-based treatments are needed to serve this population. A systematic review was conducted in order to determine the state of the science with respect to interventions aimed at improving mental health outcomes among veterans and military personnel. Results indicate that only three published articles exist that met inclusion criteria for this systematic review. All three study designs were observational in nature. Significant risk of bias was noted. The body of evidence was rated according to the GRADE approach. Although the published work marks an important starting point in evaluating evidence-based treatments for veterans and military personnel with TBI, the overall quality of evidence was determined to be very low. Implications for both future research and current practice are discussed.

Objective: Experiencing a traumatic brain injury (TBI) may increase the risk of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD); however, this has not been examined in a population-based context. This study examined prevalence and predictors (demographic and injury related) of PTSD 1 year after TBI in a population-based sample.

Method: A population-based TBI incidence and outcomes study was conducted in Hamilton and Waikato Districts of New Zealand over 12 months (February 2011–March 2012) with follow-up at 1 year. The relationship of baseline demographic and TBI characteristics to PTSD (Post-traumatic Diagnostic Scale; PDS) was examined in 431 adults (>15 years old) 1 year post-TBI.

Results: On average, participants reported three PTSD symptoms, with heightened arousal being the most commonly reported. Nearly 18% of participants met criteria for PTSD. These participants were significantly more likely to report pre-TBI history of depression/anxiety, and to have drugs implicated in the injury. Regression indicated that female gender, increased loss of consciousness (LOC) and intentional injury predicted PTSD severity (R2 = .109, F[6, 294] = 6.007, p < .001) and number of symptoms (R2 = .098, F[3, 297] = 4.562, p < .001).

Conclusion: PTSD occurred as a long-term sequela in 18% of participants after TBI, with increased PTSD severity and greater number of symptoms associated with female gender, longer LOC and intentional injury. These findings have implications for identification and targeting of assessment and intervention resources towards those at greatest risk of PTSD following TBI.

This project aims to optimise outcomes for children with cerebral palsy (CP) and their families by testing the efficacy of two complementary interventions novel to the CP population: (1) parenting intervention (Stepping Stones Triple P, SSTP); and (2) parental stress management (Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, ACT) tailored for parents of children with CP. The efficacy of SSTP and the additional effects of ACT will be tested in a wait-list randomised controlled trial, with parents of children with CP (N = 110) randomised into three groups; SSTP, SSTP + ACT and wait-list control. Intervention delivery will combine group sessions with phone consultations. Outcomes will be assessed post-intervention with retention of effect examined at 6-month follow-up. Child outcomes will include: externalising behaviour (primary child outcome), functional performance, parent-reported child quality of life; and parent outcomes will include: dysfunctional parenting (primary parent outcome), parental confidence in performing disability-related parenting practices, degree of problems in performing disability-related parenting practices, parental adjustment, psychological flexibility and parental attitude to child emotions. The theoretical background, study design and study procedures are discussed. The validation of a parenting intervention and a parenting stress intervention for parents of children with CP is crucial to better support parents of children with CP in their parenting role and in providing evidence-based intervention for behavioural and emotional problems in children with CP.

Clinical care guidelines exist internationally recommending the appropriate standards of care for adults following brain injury. These guidelines recommend a care pathway including acute, inpatient and outpatient rehabilitation and community-based care. However, if and how these guidelines are implemented is largely unknown. The aim of this study was to explore the recollected continuum of care experienced by 202 adults with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) in Victoria, Australia. The experiences of participants in this study were investigated using a mixed methods research approach (surveys and in-depth interviews). The results indicated that only 20% of participants in this study recollected receiving care in line with recommendations made in clinical care guidelines. Reasons they identified for their problematic access to services included: a lack of information about the services available, the absence of an advocate and services being restricted by limited funding. The findings of this study indicate that while guidelines provide recommendations regarding standards of care and can serve as a benchmark to improve the quality of services, they do not ensure the equitable delivery of services. Clinicians using these guidelines need to be aware of the factors that restrict clients’ access to services and take these into account when planning the delivery of services.

Deficits in attention, processing speed and executive functioning are among the most commonly reported and functionally limiting cognitive impairments among individuals with TBI. Changes in mood can exacerbate cognitive deficits and reduce life quality. Contemporary hierarchical models of cognitive functioning suggest that attention/arousal processes underlie and support higher-order functions. Building on decades of clinical research, a synergistic, integrative approach to neurorehabilitation is described, which combines bottom-up and top-town cognitive interventions in addition to psychotherapeutic interventions for mood. This approach is intended to address directly impairments in both foundational (i.e., attention) and higher-order (i.e., executive functions) processes. Executive dysfunction is addressed in a top-down fashion through the application of a series of problem-solving and emotional regulation modules that teach and integrate strategies that can be generalised across situations with practice. Attention, arousal and information processing are necessary prerequisites of successful higher-order thinking, attention skills, and are addressed in a bottom-up fashion through intensive individualised attention and processing training tasks. Combining top-down and bottom-up approaches within a comprehensive day-treatment programme can effect a synergistic improvement of overall functioning.

Background: Previous research addressing cognitive recovery after traumatic brain injury (TBI) in adults has predominately used cross-sectional methods. This systematic review examines longitudinal research into cognitive recovery in the first 2 years following moderate-to-severe TBI in adults and aims to identify apparent methodological issues with the existing literature.

Design: Systematic review of the first 2 years post-trauma.

Setting: Data were extracted from three electronic databases and manual searches of published articles until October 2012.

Participants: Two hundred and forty-two participants with severe TBI and 281 comparison participants were used to calculate effect sizes.

Results: Twenty papers met the selection criteria, with effect sizes computed from four studies. Moderate-to-large effect sizes were initially observed between the TBI and comparison groups on most measures (range: d = 0.2–2.8). Recovery continued in all five cognitive domains over the 2 years post-injury.

Conclusions: Results demonstrated that cognitive recovery was continuous throughout the first 2 years following moderate-to-severe TBI. Findings also indicated different rates of recovery for the specific cognitive domains, highlighting the heterogeneous nature of cognitive recovery after TBI. The review highlighted several methodological issues within the limited existing literature; recommendations were developed to improve the evidence base.