Properties of “traditional service systems” are compared with properties that might be expected to produce “consumer-orientated” services. Identification of necessary goals and processes to change traditional services to consumer-orientated services is a complex activity. Blueprints for individual systems are not offered; however, an attempt has been made to identify general guidelines which may be of use to practitioners who wish to initiate change.

It has been argued that verbal reports and questionnaire data may be constrained by cultural and social demands to the extent that they are unlikely to show concordance with more direct measures of behavioural and physiological anxiety. The present report investigates this hypothesis with reference to social anxiety. It was found that physiological and cognitive questionnaires were good predictors of physiological anxiety and cognitions in a social interaction test. A behavioural questionnaire, however, was a poor predictor of actual behaviour. In the social interaction test, which was designed to produce anxiety, there was a high degree of concordance on all the measures except non-verbal behaviour and heart rate. Because behaviour ratings showed least concordance and the poorest predictive validity, it was suggested that a behavioural assessment alone may give an erroneous picture of a person's overall social anxiety.

Two experiments investigated the effects on persistence of behaviour in extinction of different training procedures, using mentally handicapped boys who were trained to place objects of different shapes into matching holes in a box for sensory reinforcers. In Experiment 1 two subjects were given three training procedures: (i) a C-C procedure, consisting of 80 trials of continuous reinforcement (CRF); (ii)a P-P procedure, consisting of 80 trials of variable ratio reinforcement (VR5); and (iii) a C-P procedure, consisting of 40 trials on CRF followed by 40 on VR5. Extinction occurred most quickly after C-C training, next quickest after P-P training. In experiment 2 with four boys, C-P training of 160 trials of CRF, followed by 120 trials of VR5, produced quicker extinction than P-P training of 280 trials of VR5 reinforcement. The implications of these results for training persistent behaviour in mentally handicapped people are discussed.

The generality of exposure effects in animal laboratory studies is reviewed. The validity of the animal model for exposure therapy is assessed using Bond's (1984) criteria. The specific criticisms of the animal model raised by Isaac Marks are responded to and discussed. It is concluded that the animal model for exposure therapy is substantially valid.

Two opiate abusers and a solvent abuser were exposed to drug-related cues. Self-rated craving showed habituation within all sessions, although there was considerable variability between subjects in the time-course. Habituation between sessions also occurred, although this was less consistent. The level of craving was reduced in one case by a distraction procedure. Cognitive factors were investigated. For one subject anticipation of the stimulus led to high craving while for all three subjects drug-related imagery was associated with high levels of craving. Dysphoric mood states led to a re-emergence of craving (dishabituation) in two cases. One subject showed objective signs, and reported symptoms of opiate withdrawal during the exposure sessions. He had also shown needle-freak behaviour where the syringe and needle produced drugagonistic effects (pleasant, comfortable feelings or excitement). Implications of these results for the treatment of addiction are discussed.

This paper presents a single case study of a patient with compulsive hairpulling (trichotillomania) of 16 years' duration, who was successfully treated using electric aversion therapy. All previous attempts at treatment and self-help had been unsuccessful. A behavioural self-control programme was tried initially with some success, but the progress was not maintained following an unplanned break in treatment and this treatment was ineffective when reinstated. Electric aversion therapy eliminated hair pulling almost immediately and the results were maintained on follow-up, with the exception of a minor relapse at a time of stress.

A problem behaviour which had been maintained on a variable reinforcement schedule was first put onto a continuous schedule and subsequently treated by extinction. The rapid response to extinction was judged to have been due to the prior move to a CRF schedule. Reasons for the emergence and maintenance of problem behaviours in certain situations are discussed.