The clinical literature has long acknowledged the paradoxical findings that deliberate attempts to suppress particular thoughts actually increase their occurrence. The unwanted, intrusive thoughts that are a major feature of obsessive disorders, depression, sleep disorders, and a range of other disturbances are of particular clinical concern. The exploration of psychological factors associated with cognitive control is, therefore, clinically relevant. The present paper considers the role of mental control and thought suppression in bulimia nervosa in explaining the occurrence of unwanted thoughts and feelings, specifically in relation to weight, shape, and food. Our fundamental argument is that suppression of thoughts of food, weight, and body shape can lead to the increased frequency of these thoughts. The increase in unwanted thoughts is likely to result in a loss of control over eating, and lead to the escalation and perpetuation of bulimia. Dietary restriction is likely to be associated with successful suppression, and binge-eating with failed suppression. Indeed, the initial success of suppression paradoxically causes its inevitable failure. We conclude that the suppression of thoughts of food and weight or shape in bulimia nervosa is maladaptive and counterproductive. In addition, the therapeutic implications of thought suppression are considered.

Research indicates that highly anxious adults show an attentional bias favouring emotionally threatening over emotionally neutral stimuli. In contrast, low-anxious adults show a bias favouring neutral over threatening stimuli. Such attentional biases may play important roles in the regulation and dysregulation of anxiety. Therefore, they have substantial potential to foster or protect against the development, maintenance, or intensification of anxiety disorders. Evidence from several recent studies suggests that such biases also occur among children. This paper reviews these studies, placing particular emphasis on methodological issues that must be considered when applying methods from studies of adults to children of varying ages.

This paper reviews the extensive research examining developmental patterns in normal fear. Areas of focus include age, gender, and socioeconomic status differences in fear content, prevalence, and intensity. The structure and stability/duration of normal fears are also discussed. Finally, the crosscultural research in this area is reviewed. Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies indicate that fear decreases in prevalence and intensity with age. There are also major changes in the content of normal fear over the course of development. Such changes are characterised by a transition from infant fears which are related to immediate, concrete, and prepotent stimuli, and which are largely noncognitive, to fears of late childhood and adolescence which are related to anticipatory, abstract, and more global stimuli and events. Fears of late childhood and adolescence are also more cognitive. One of the prominent themes during these years is social evaluation. It is noteworthy that fears have been demonstrated to be largely transitory in nature, decreasing significantly in number and intensity over time and with maturation. Future research into normal fear should more closely examine the validity of current assessment techniques. There is also a need for research into the developmental correlates of fear, including individual differences and affective environmental experiences. In particular, research examining the correlates of normal fear within a developmental psychopathology framework is recommended.

This paper describes the employment achievements of people following spinal cord injury, and briefly reviews the literature on methods used by job seekers in obtaining employment. The scientific literature on job seeking supports the social validity claims of Azrin's behaviourally-based job club methodology (Azrin, Flores, & Kaplan, 1975) and thus suggests that the job club approach might be successfully offered to people with a spinal cord injury who wish to work. A group case study is presented wherein a modified job club format was utilised with ten spinal cord injured people. Encouraging results were obtained, both in terms of changed behaviour and in actual employment status.

Between 10% and 25% of children in Australian schools have significant difficulty in mastering basic educational skills. Failure to achieve “tool” competencies in literacy (and numeracy) expected for independent adult functioning can have cumulatively negative consequences for individuals and their communities. The contribution of behavioural approaches to the instruction in basic literacy skills in schools is outlined. Empirical evidence of their effectiveness is presented and two of the most comprehensive (and most successful) models are described: the Morningside model of generative instruction and direct instruction. Despite strong research support, however, behavioural approaches have not been widely adopted in general education. It is suggested that the main barriers to their adoption are the currently dominant paradigms of structuralism and constructivism, neither of which have translated into effective teaching practices for children most at risk of failure. Constructivist epistemology, in particular, is seen as oppositional to behaviour-based instruction and scientist–practitioner intervention, and its disregard for empiricism is cause for concern that ineffective practices will be maintained. It is concluded that behaviour-based practitioners (and researchers) need to become more effectively involved in system-level change strategies if they are to make an impact on the wider problems of educational failure.

Cognitive-behavioural (CB) therapy for internalising disorders in youth is discussed from both a procedural and empirical standpoint. A theoretical overview of CB treatment is provided, and the unique difficulties faced in the identification and treatment of internalising disorders are considered. With reference to specific internalising disorders (i.e., anxiety and depression), the present paper considers the differential application of CB strategies and the efficacy of treatment procedures. Issues relevant to CB treatment, including (a) flexibility in application, (b) developmental considerations, (c) treatment methodology, and (d) transportability, are discussed.

Cue reactivity has been assessed in women with bulimia nervosa both in conjunction with treatment studies and in independent laboratory investigations. Methodology for investigating cue reactivity varies widely, providing little guideline for the optimal assessment parameters. The present pilot study describes the evolution of a methodology for assessing cue reactivity in response to in vivo cues in women with bulimia nervosa. Patients' responses are compared with those of health controls. Recommendations for the standardisation of the procedure are given. The guidelines proposed have equal applicability to research on cue reactivity in the fields of substance abuse and anxiety disorders.

A large sample of children and adolescents were screened for test anxiety using the Test Attitude Inventory (Spielberger, 1980). Subjects with low and high test anxiety were then compared on self-report measures of trait anxiety, depression, and fear and then asked to report their thoughts and level of distress following an imagined test. Academic grades and performance on standardised achievement and ability tests were also obtained. High test-anxious children and adolescents reported higher levels of trait anxiety, depression, and fear as well as greater distress and cognitive interference during the imagined test. They also obtained lower grades and performed more poorly on the standardised measures. Age effects moderated these findings. Discussion focuses on the clinical and developmental implications of the findings.

A considerable body of classroom management research has attempted to examine teacher and student variables believed to correlate with student academic achievement. However, only some of these variables are alterable by the school. Knowledge of these alterable variables may assist schools to make informed decisions about managing primary school classrooms to maximise student achievement. Evidence suggests that students' activity (level of academic engaged time and academic learning time) may be causally intermediate between the teacher's implementation of the curriculum (including a teacher's managerial skills, discipline procedures, and instructional methods) and the student's learning. This paper reviews the literature related to a number of alterable teacher and student variables that impact on a student's academic achievement. Existing difficulties of, and future directions for, classroom management research are discussed.

In this study, we examined the prevalence and nature of nonclinical panic attacks in 649 Australian youth and explored the relations between such attacks and measures of social support, stress, anxiety, depression, and fear. Full-blown attacks (attacks involving four or more symptoms with rapid onset) were reported by 104 of the youth (16%). Attacks were reported more frequently by girls than boys; however, age was unrelated to panic-attack status. Heightened levels of anxiety and fear, as well as stress in the family and lack of family support, were related to attack status. Path-analytic procedures supported a working model consisting of stress, social support, and emotional distress as related to panic status. Limitations of the self-report data on panic attacks and the other measures used in this study are acknowledged.

This study examined the effectiveness of emotive imagery as a treatment for clinically significant darkness phobia in 7- to 10-year-old children. Twenty-four clinically diagnosed children were randomly assigned to either emotive imagery treatment or a waiting-list control condition. Emotive imagery was conducted over six sessions, one per week. The results demonstrated that the emotive imagery group showed significantly greater reductions in darkness fears and anxiety according to child and parent reports and a behavioural darkness probe task, in comparison to the waiting-list group. The waiting-list children showed minimal reductions in fearfulness over the 20-week waiting-list period. The improvements of the emotive imagery group were maintained at the 3-month follow-up.

The potential efficacy of recently developed cognitive and behavioural treatments (CBT) for residual hallucinations raises practical questions about the extent of applicability of such treatments and the possible need for programmatic responses by mental health services. This pilot study, conducted in a 355-bed acute and rehabilitation psychiatric hospital, explored the prevalence of persisting auditory hallucinations, patients' coping strategies, and indicators for cognitive and behavioural treatments. A census identified 123 patients with persisting hallucinations. Information about practical impediments to CBT was obtained from structured interviews with staff. Detailed interviews with a subsample of 35 hallucinators identified natural coping strategies and indicators for treatment. High rates of natural coping strategies were reported by this very disabled sample. Fifty-three per cent of hallucinators were considered “potential” candidates, and 20% “good” candidates for CBT for voices.

The failure of the school system to effectively provide for the basic skill development of each its pupils is of concern to both the general and research communities. It is especially salient for those inclined towards empiricism as there are behavioural approaches to teaching, with excellent research support, which could make a major contribution to the prevention and alleviation of this distressing problem. Unfortunately, the evidence for the effectiveness of such programs is largely ignored by educational decision makers. One example of this group of behaviourally based models is known as direct instruction. It is contrasted with the currently popular approach to teaching called whole language, one with little empirical support and major theoretical weaknesses. The broader issue, examined within the context of this educational problem area, concerns researchers' responsibility for the dissemination and application of their work within the community.

Anxiety and depression tend to run in families. This paper reviews some of the family processes that are implicated in the development, maintenance, and treatment of these problems in children and adolescents. Empirical studies and our theoretical review show that social learning processes within the context of intimate relationships are important in the development of anxiety and depression. Family processes have been shown to be important in the treatment of anxiety disorders but parallel evidence is lacking with regard to depression in adolescents. Two models are shown to have demonstrated explanatory power and empirical support: social learning theory and attachment theory. Examples are given of how these models can be contrasted and integrated at both clinical and theoretical levels.

While there is a body of research addressing the causes of reading difficulty and the identification and remediation of children with a reading difficulty, little is reported regarding the type and adequacy of assistance that these children actually receive in school. This study addresses the latter two issues. A random sample of 110 Year 3 teachers from State primary schools answered questions concerning school resources for assisting children with a reading difficulty, main method of teaching reading, their beliefs concerning reading difficulty, and their own level of general teaching experience and experience and training in managing reading difficulty. These teachers then provided information concerning the ability level, behavioural problems, perceived cause of reading difficulty, assessment, and adequacy of assistance for 303 Year 3 children whom they identified as having a reading difficulty. Results indicated that 42.7% of teachers predominantly used a whole language approach to teaching reading and that, by teacher definition, only 36.6% of children were receiving adequate assistance for their reading difficulty. Regression analysis showed that the factors most strongly associated with adequate assistance were a less severe level of reading difficulty, a higher level of support available within the school, and more children with reading difficulty in the class. The implications of these findings and other characteristics of the children with reading difficulties are discussed.

This paper describes some of the current problems with the assessment of children's anxiety. The main assessment methods — structured clinical interview and self-report — often have problems with validity and reliability while less frequently used measures such as physiological recording, behavioural observation, and thought-listing also have their attendant difficulties. Possible ways of reducing some of these problems using a developmental perspective are discussed.

There has been extensive debate over the last three decades about which professional groups should receive government-funded rebates in the mental health field. Cognitive-behaviour therapists appear to be in the best position to demonstrate clinical efficacy, but have failed to demonstrate cost-effectiveness of cognitive-behaviour therapy. There is a need to demonstrate the cost of behaviour therapy as the first step in determining the cost-effectiveness of behaviour therapy compared to the traditional (medical-based) interventions. Using archival data from a university-based psychology clinic specialising in cognitive-behavioural interventions with child and adolescent problems, the present research determined the cost of successful treatment programs with the clinic's major referral areas: nocturnal enuresis, behaviour management, and education-based problems. Analysing 77 cases, it was found that there were significant between group differences in the number and total duration of face-to-face interviews, in the number of other contacts between therapist and client, in total therapist time, and in the estimated average cost of cases. There emerged different treatment patterns for each clinical problem, and these were reflected in costing. A number of research and methodological issues are explored. Implications for future research on cost-effectiveness and the subsequent collection of comparative data across clinics and a variety of clinical problem areas are discussed.