Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2plfb Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-29T08:07:50.907Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Beyond prejudice: Are negative evaluations the problem and is getting us to like one another more the solution?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 November 2012

John Dixon ,
Mark Levine ,
Steve Reicher  and
Kevin Durrheim
John Dixon
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Open University, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA, United Kingdom. [email protected]://www.open.ac.uk/socialsciences/staff/people-profile.php?name=John_Dixon
Mark Levine
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Exeter University, Exeter, Devon EX4 4SB, United Kingdom. [email protected]://psychology.exeter.ac.uk/staff/index.php?web_id=Mark_Levine
Steve Reicher
Affiliation:
School of Psychology, St Andrews University, St Andrews KY16 9JP, United Kingdom. [email protected]://psy.st-andrews.ac.uk/people/lect/sdr.shtml
Kevin Durrheim
Affiliation:
School of Psychology, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 3209, South [email protected]://psychology.ukzn.ac.za/staff.aspx
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

For most of the history of prejudice research, negativity has been treated as its emotional and cognitive signature, a conception that continues to dominate work on the topic. By this definition, prejudice occurs when we dislike or derogate members of other groups. Recent research, however, has highlighted the need for a more nuanced and “inclusive” (Eagly 2004) perspective on the role of intergroup emotions and beliefs in sustaining discrimination. On the one hand, several independent lines of research have shown that unequal intergroup relations are often marked by attitudinal complexity, with positive responses such as affection and admiration mingling with negative responses such as contempt and resentment. Simple antipathy is the exception rather than the rule. On the other hand, there is mounting evidence that nurturing bonds of affection between the advantaged and the disadvantaged sometimes entrenches rather than disrupts wider patterns of discrimination. Notably, prejudice reduction interventions may have ironic effects on the political attitudes of the historically disadvantaged, decreasing their perceptions of injustice and willingness to engage in collective action to transform social inequalities.

These developments raise a number of important questions. Has the time come to challenge the assumption that negative evaluations are inevitably the cognitive and affective hallmarks of discrimination? Is the orthodox concept of prejudice in danger of side-tracking, if not obstructing, progress towards social justice in a fuller sense? What are the prospects for reconciling a prejudice reduction model of change, designed to get people to like one another more, with a collective action model of change, designed to ignite struggles to achieve intergroup equality?

Keywords

contactcollective actionintergroup relationsprejudiceprejudice reduction social change
Type
Target Article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 35 , Issue 6 , December 2012 , pp. 411 - 425
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2012 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abrams, D., Viki, G. T. & Masser, B. & Bohner, G. (2003) Perceptions of stranger and acquaintance rape: The role of benevolent and hostile sexism in victim blame and rape proclivity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84:111–25.Google Scholar
Ackerman, P. & Kruegler, C. (1994) Strategic nonviolent conflict: The dynamics of people power in the twentieth century. Praeger.Google Scholar
Adorno, T. W., Frenkel-Brunswik, E., Levinson, D. J. & Sanford, R. N. (1950) The authoritarian personality. Harper.Google Scholar
Allport, G. W. (1951) Prejudice: A problem in social causation. Journal of Social Issues 6:4–23.Google Scholar
Allport, G. (1954) The nature of prejudice. Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
Allport, G. W. & Kramer, B. M. (1946) Some roots of prejudice. Journal of Psychology 22:9–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aronson, E. & Patnoe, S. (1997) The jigsaw classroom: Building cooperation in the classroom, 2nd ed. Longman.Google Scholar
Barlow, F. K., Sibley, C. G. & Hornsey, M. J. (2012) Rejection as a call to arms: Interracial hostility and support for political action as outcomes of race-based rejection in majority and minority groups. British Journal of Social Psychology 51(1):167–77. DOI: 10.1111/j.2044-8309.2011.02040.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barreto, M. & Ellemers, N. (2005) The burden of benevolent sexism: How it contributes to the maintenance of gender inequalities. European Journal of Social Psychology 35:633–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Billig, M. (1988) The notion of “prejudice”: Some rhetorical and ideological aspects. Text 8:91–111.Google Scholar
Blackburn, R. (2011) The overthrow of colonial slavery 1776–1848. Verso.Google Scholar
Blumer, H. (1958) Race prejudice as a sense of group position. Pacific Sociological Review 1:3–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bobo, L. & Kluegel, J. R. (1993) Opposition to race-targeting: Self-interest, stratification ideology or racial attitudes? American Sociological Review 58:443–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bobo, L., Kluegel, J. R. & Smith, R. A. (1997) Laissez-faire racism: The crystallization of a kinder, gentler, antiblack ideology. In: Racial attitudes in the 1990s: Continuity and change, ed. Tuch, S. A. & Martin, J. K., pp. 15–42. Praeger Publishers.Google Scholar
Boccato, G., Cortes, B. P., Demoulin, S. & Leyens, J. Ph. (2007) The automaticity of dehumanization. European Journal of Social Psychology 37:987–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brewer, M. B. (1997) The social psychology of intergroup relations: Can research inform practice? Journal of Social Issues 53:197–211.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brewer, M. B. & Miller, N. (1984) Beyond the contact hypothesis: Theoretical perspectives on desegregation. In: Groups in contact: The psychology of desegregation, ed. Miller, N. & Brewer, M. B., pp. 281–302, Academic Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, C. L. (2006) Moral capital: Foundations of British abolitionism. University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Brown, R. (1995) Prejudice: Its social psychology. Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar
Brown, R. & Hewstone, M. (2005) An integrative theory of intergroup contact. In: Advances in experimental social psychology, vol. 37, ed. Zanna, M. P., pp. 255–343. Elsevier Academic Press.Google Scholar
Cakal, H., Hewstone, M., Schwär, G. & Heath, A. (2011) An investigation of the social identity model of collective action and the “sedative” effect of intergroup contact among Black and White students in South Africa. British Journal of Social Psychology 50:606–27.Google Scholar
Camus, A. (1955/1961) Homage to an exile. In: Camus, A. Resistance, rebellion, death. trans. O'Brien, J., p. 101. Alfred A. Knopf.Google Scholar
Chapleau, K. M., Oswald, D. L. & Russell, B. L. (2007) How ambivalent sexism towards women and men supports rape myth acceptance. Sex Roles 57:131–36.Google Scholar
Cottrell, C. A. & Neuberg, S. L. (2005) Differential emotional reactions to different groups: A sociofunctional threat-based approach to “prejudice.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 88:770–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Craig, M. A. & Richeson, J. A. (2012) Coalition or derogation? How perceived discrimination influences intra-minority relations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 102(4):759–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crisp, R. J. & Hewstone, M. (1999) Differential evaluation of crossed category groups: Patterns, processes, and reducing intergroup bias. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations 2:307–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cuddy, A. J. C., Fiske, S. T. & Glick, P. (2008) Warmth and competence as universal dimensions of social perception: The stereotype content model and the BIAS map. In: Advances in experimental social psychology, ed. Zanna, M. P., vol. 40, pp. 61–149. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Dion, K. L. (2002) The social psychology of perceived prejudice and discrimination. Canadian Psychology 4:1–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dixon, J., Durrheim, K. & Tredoux, C. (2007) Intergroup contact and attitudes towards the principle and practice of racial equality. Psychological Science 18:867–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dixon, J., Durrheim, K., Tredoux, C., Tropp, L. R., Clack, B. & Eaton, E. (2010a) A paradox of integration? Interracial contact, prejudice reduction and black South Africans' perceptions of racial discrimination. Journal of Social Issues 66:401–16.Google Scholar
Dixon, J., Durrheim, K., Tredoux, C. G., Tropp, L. R., Clack, B., Eaton, L. & Quayle, M. (2010b) Challenging the stubborn core of opposition to equality: Racial contact and policy attitudes. Political Psychology 31:831–56.Google Scholar
Dixon, J., Tropp, L. R., Durrheim, K. & Tredoux, C. G. (2010c) “Let them eat harmony”: Prejudice reduction and the political attitudes of historically disadvantaged groups. Current Directions in Psychological Science 19:76–80.Google Scholar
Dollard, J., Doob, L., Miller, N. E., Mowrer, O. & Sears, R. (1939) Frustration and aggression. Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Dovidio, J. F. (2001) On the nature of contemporary prejudice: The third wave. Journal of Social Issues 57:829–49.Google Scholar
Dovidio, J. F. & Gaertner, S. L. (2004) Aversive racism. In: Advances in experimental social psychology, ed. Zanna, M. P., vol. 36, pp. 1–52. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L. & Saguy, T. (2008) Another view of “we”: Majority and minority group perspectives on a common ingroup identity. European Review of Social Psychology 18:296–330.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L. & Saguy, T. (2009) Commonality and the complexity of “we”: Social attitudes and social change. Personality and Social Psychology Review 13:3–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L., Shnabel, N., Saguy, T. & Johnson, J. D. (2010) Recategorization and prosocial behavior: Common identity and a dual identity. In: The psychology of pro-social behavior, ed. Stürmer, S. & Snyder, M., pp. 191–208. Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar
Dovidio, J. F., Glick, P. & Rudman, L. A. eds. (2005) On the nature of prejudice: Fifty years after Allport. Blackwell.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Drescher, S. & Emmer, P. C. (2010) Who abolished slavery?: Slave revolts and abolitionism. Berghahn Books.Google Scholar
Drury, J. & Reicher, S. (2009) Collective psychological empowerment as a model of social change: Researching crowds and power. Journal of Social Issues 65: 707–25. DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-4560.2009.01622.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duckitt, J. (1992) The social psychology of prejudice. Westport.Google Scholar
Eagly, A. (2004) Prejudice: Towards a more inclusive definition. In: The social psychology of group identity and social conflict: Theory, application, and practice, ed. Eagly, A. H., Baron, R. M., &. Hamilton, V. L., pp. 45–64. American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Eagly, A. H. & Mladinic, A. (1989) Gender stereotypes and attitudes toward women and men. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 15:543–58.Google Scholar
Eagly, A. H. & Mladinic, A. (1993) Are people prejudiced against women? Some answers from research on attitudes, gender stereotypes and judgments of competence. In: European review of social psychology, ed. Stroebe, W. & Hewstone, M., vol. 5, pp. 1–35. Wiley.Google Scholar
Eidelson, R. J. & Eidelson, R. I. (2003) Dangerous ideas: Five beliefs that impel groups towards conflict. American Psychologist 58:182–92.Google Scholar
Esses, V. M. & Dovidio, J. F. (2002) The role of emotions in determining willingness to engage in intergroup contact. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 28:1202–14.Google Scholar
Fanon, F. (1965) The wretched of the earth. Grove Press.Google Scholar
Forbes, G. B., Jung, J. & Haas, K. B. (2006) Benevolent sexism and cosmetic use: A replication with three college samples and one adult sample. Journal of Social Psychology 145:635–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Forbes, H. D. (1997) Ethnic contact: Commerce, culture and the contact hypothesis. Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Fox-Genovese, E. & Genovese, E. D. (2005) The mind of the master class. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Gaertner, S. L. & Dovidio, J. F. (2000) Reducing intergroup bias: The common ingroup identity model. Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Gaertner, S. L. & Dovidio, J. F. (2009) Common ingroup identity: A categorization-based approach for reducing intergroup bias. In: Handbook of prejudice, ed. Nelson, T., pp. 489–506. Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Glasford, D. E. & Calcagno, J. (2012) The conflict of harmony: Intergroup contact, commonality and political solidarity between disadvantaged groups. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 48:323–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glick, P. & Fiske, S. T. (1996) The ambivalent sexism inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70:491–512.Google Scholar
Glick, P. & Fiske, S. T. (2001) An ambivalent alliance: Hostile and benevolent sexism as complementary justifications for gender inequality. American Psychologist 56:109–18.Google Scholar
Glick, P., Lameiras, M., Fiske, S. T., Eckes, T., Masser, B., Volpato, C., Manganelli, A. M., Pek, J., Huang, L., Sakalli-Uğurlu, N., Castro, Y. R., Luiza, M., Pereira, D., Willemson, T. M., Brunner, A., Materna, I. & Wells, R. (2004) Bad but bold: Ambivalent attitudes toward men predict gender inequality in 16 nations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 86:713–28.Google Scholar
Goff, P. A., Eberhardt, J. L., Williams, M. J. & Jackson, M. (2008) Not yet human: Implicit knowledge, historical dehumanization, and contemporary consequences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 94:292–306.Google Scholar
Goldberg, D. T. (1993) Racist culture. Blackwell.Google Scholar
Grant, P. R. and Brown, R. (1995) From ethnocentricism to collective protest – responses to relative deprivation and threats to social identity. Social Psychology Quarterly 58:195–212.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenaway, K. H., Quinn, E. A. & Louis, W. R. (2011) Appealing to common humanity increases forgiveness but reduces collective action among victims of historical atrocities. European Journal of Social Psychology 41:569–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Halabi, S., Dovidio, J. F. & Nadler, A. (2008) When and how high status groups offer help: Effects of social dominance orientation and status threat. Political Psychology 29:841–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haller, J. (1971) Outcasts from evolution: Scientific attitudes of racial inferiority. University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Harris, L. T. & Fiske, L. T. (2006) Dehumanizing the lowest of the low: Neuroimaging responses to extreme outgroups. Psychological Science 17:847–53.Google Scholar
Harvey, R. (2003) The fall of apartheid. Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Haslam, N. (2006) Dehumanization: An integrative review. Personality and Social Psychology Review 10:252–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haslam, N. & Loughnan, S. (2012) Dehumanization and prejudice. In: Beyond prejudice: Extending the social psychology of intergroup conflict, inequality and social change, ed. Dixon, J. & Levine, M., pp. 89–104. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Henriques, J. Hollway, W., Urwin, C., Venn, C. & Walkerdine, V. (1984) Changing the subject. Methuen.Google Scholar
Hopkins, N., Reicher, S. & Levine, M. (1997) On the parallels between social cognition theory and the new racism. British Journal of Social Psychology 36:305–29.Google Scholar
Ibanez, A., Haye, A., González, R., Hurtado, E. & Henríquez, R. (2009) Multi-level analysis of cultural phenomena. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour 39:81–110.Google Scholar
Jackman, M. R. (1994) The velvet glove: Paternalism and conflict in gender, class, and race relations. University of California Press.Google Scholar
Jackman, M. R. (2005) Rejection or inclusion of outgroups? In: On the nature of prejudice: 50 years after Allport, ed. Dovidio, J. F., Glick, P. & Rudman, L. A., Oxford.Google Scholar
Jackman, M. R. & Crane, M. (1986) “Some of my best friends are black…”: Interracial friendship and whites' racial attitudes. Public Opinion Quarterly 50:459–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jasper, J. M. (2011) Emotions and social movements: Twenty years of theory and research. Annual Review of Sociology 37:285–303.Google Scholar
Jost, J. T., Banaji, M. R. & Nosek, B. A. (2004) A decade of system justification theory: Accumulated evidence of conscious and unconscious bolstering of the status quo. Political Psychology 25:881–919.Google Scholar
Kalev, A., Dobbin, F. & Kelly, E. (2006) Best practices or best guesses: Assessing the effectiveness of corporate affirmative action and diversity policies. American Sociological Review 71:589–617.Google Scholar
Kinder, D. R. & Sears, D. O. (1981) Prejudice and politics: Symbolic racism versus racial threats to the good life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 40:414–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klandermans, B. (1997) The social psychology of protest. Blackwell.Google Scholar
Klandermans, B. (2002) How group identification helps to overcome the dilemma of collective action. American Behavioral Scientist 45:887–900.Google Scholar
Kramer, B. M. (1949) Dimensions of prejudice. Journal of Psychology 27:389–451.Google Scholar
Levin, J. & Levin, W. C. (1982) The functions of prejudice and discrimination. Harper & Row.Google Scholar
Levine, M. & Crowther, S. (2008) The responsive bystander: How social group membership and group size can encourage as well as inhibit bystander intervention. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 96:1429–39.Google Scholar
Leyens, J.-P., Cortes, B., Demoulin, S., Dovidio, J. F., Fiske, S. T., Gaunt, R., Paladino, M.-P., Rodriguez-Perez, A., Rodriguez-Torres, R. & Vaes, J. (2003) Emotional prejudice, essentialism, and nationalism: The 2002 Tajfel lecture. European Journal of Social Psychology 33:703–17.Google Scholar
Leyens, J. Ph., Demoulin, S., Vaes, J., Gaunt, R. & Paladino, M. P. (2007) Infra-humanization: The wall of group differences. Social Issues and Policy Review 1:139–72.Google Scholar
Leyens, J. Ph., Rodriguez, A. P., Rodriguez, R. T., Gaunt, R., Paladino, P. M., Vaes, J. & Demoulin, S. (2001) Psychological essentialism and the attribution of uniquely human emotions to ingroups and outgroups. European Journal of Social Psychology 31:395–411.Google Scholar
Lilienfeld, S. O., Ammirati, R. & Landfield, K. (2009) Giving debiasing away. Can psychological research on correcting cognitive errors promote human welfare? Perspectives on Psychological Science 4:390–98.Google Scholar
Long, H. H. (1951) Race prejudice and social change. American Journal of Sociology 57:15–19.Google Scholar
Mackie, D. M. & Smith, E. R. (Eds.) (2002) From prejudice to intergroup emotions: Differentiated reactions to social groups. Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Mallett, R. K., Huntsinger, J. R., Sinclair, S. & Swim, J. K. (2008) Seeing through their eyes: When majority group members take collective action on behalf of an outgroup. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations 11:451–70. DOI: 10.1177/1368430208095400.Google Scholar
Maoz, I. (2011) Does contact work in protracted asymmetrical conflict? Appraising 20 years of reconciliation-aimed encounters between Israeli Jews and Palestinians. Journal of Peace Research 48(1):115–25.Google Scholar
Marques, J. P. (2006) The sounds of silence: Nineteenth-century Portugal and the abolition of the slave trade. Berghahn Books.Google Scholar
Marques, J. P. (2010a) Afterthoughts. In: Who abolished slavery?: Slave revolts and abolitionism, ed. Drescher, S. & Emmer, P. C., pp. 185–200. Berghahn Books.Google Scholar
Marques, J. P. (2010b) Slave revolts and the abolition of slavery: An overinterpretation. In: Who abolished slavery?: Slave revolts and abolitionism, ed. Drescher, S. & Emmer, P. C., pp. 3–89. Berghahn Books.Google Scholar
Montagu, M. F. (1949) Some psychodynamic factors in race prejudice. Journal of Social Psychology 30:175–87.Google Scholar
Nadler, A. (2002) Inter-group helping relations as power relations: Helping relations as affirming or challenging inter-group hierarchy. Journal of Social Issues 58:487–503.Google Scholar
Nadler, A. (2010) Interpersonal and intergroup helping relations as power relations: Implications for real-world helping. In: The psychology of prosocial behavior, ed. Sturmer, S. & Synder, M., pp. 269–87. Wiley Blackwell.Google Scholar
Nadler, A. & Halabi, S. (2006) In tergroup helping as status relations: Effects of status stability, identification, and type of help on receptivity to high status group's help. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 91:97–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nadler, A., Halabi, S. & Harpaz-Gorodeisky, G. (2007) Inter-group helping as status organizing processes: Implications for inter-group misunderstandings. Unpublished paper. Recovered 08/15/2008 from http://www.humiliationstudies.org/documents/NadlerIntergrougHelping2007revisedversion.pdf.Google Scholar
Nelson, T. D., ed. (2009) Handbook of prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination. Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Nepstad, S. E. (2007) Oppositional consciousness amongst the privileged: Remaking religion in the central America solidarity movement. Critical Sociology 33:661–88.Google Scholar
Neuberg., S. L. & Cottrell, C. A. (2006) Evolutionary bases of prejudices. In: Evolution and social psychology, ed. Schaller, M., Simpson, J. A. & Kenrick, D. T., pp. 163–87. Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Neuberg, S. L., Kenrick, D. T. & Schaller, M. (2011) Human threat management systems: Self-protection and disease-avoidance. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 35:1042–51.Google Scholar
Nier, J. A., Gaertner, S. L., Dovidio, J. F., Banker, B. S. & Ward, C. M. (2001) Changing interracial evaluations and behavior: The effects of a common group identity. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations 4:299–316.Google Scholar
Oakes, P. (2001) The root of all evil? Unearthing the categorization process. In: Blackwell handbook of social psychology, ed. Brown, R. & Gaertner, S., chapter 1. Blackwell.Google Scholar
Olson, M. A. & Fazio, R. H. (2006) Reducing automatically-activated racial prejudice through implicit evaluative conditioning. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 32:421–33.Google Scholar
Opotow, S. (1990) Moral exclusion and injustice: An introduction. Journal of Social Issues 46:1–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oppenheimer, D. B. (1994–1995) Kennedy, King, Shuttleswoth and Walker: The events leading to the introduction of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. University of San Francisco Law Review 29:645–79.Google Scholar
Paluck, E. L. & Green, D. P. (2009) Prejudice reduction: What works? A review and assessment of resarch and practice. Annual Review of Psychology 60:339–67.Google Scholar
Paolini, S., Hewstone, M., Cairns, E. & Voci, A. (2004) Effects of direct and indirect cross-group friendships on judgments of Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland: The mediating role of an anxiety-reduction mechanism. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 30:770–86.Google Scholar
Pettigrew, T. F. (2010) Commentary: South African contributions to the study of intergroup relations. Journal of Social Issues 66:417–30.Google Scholar
Pettigrew, T. F. & Meertens, R. W. (1995) Subtle and blatant prejudice in Western Europe. European Journal of Social Psychology 57:57–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pettigrew, T. F. & Tropp, L. (2006) A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 90:751–83.Google Scholar
Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2008) How does intergroup contact reduce prejudice? Meta-analytic tests of three mediators. European Journal of Social Psychology 38:922–34.Google Scholar
Pettigrew, T. F., Tropp, L. R., Wagner, U. & Christ, O. (2011) Recent advances in intergroup contact theory. International Journal of Intercultural Relations 35:271–80.Google Scholar
Phelps, E. A., O'Connor, K. J., Cunningham, W. A., Funayama, E. S., Gatenby, J. C., Gore, J. C. & Banaji, M. R. (2000) Performance on indirect measures of race evaluation predicts amygdala activation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 12:729–38.Google Scholar
Piven, F. F. (2008) Challenging authority: How ordinary people change America. Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar
Piven, F. F. & Cloward, R. A. (1977) Poor people's movements: Why they succeed, how they fail. Vintage.Google Scholar
Poore, A. G., Gagne, F., Barlow, K. M., Lydon, J. E., Taylor, D. M. & Wright, S. C. (2002) Contact and the person/group discrimination discrepancy in an Inuit community. Journal of Psychology 136:371–82.Google Scholar
Quillian, L. (2006) New approaches to understanding prejudice and discrimination. Annual Review of Sociology 32:299–338.Google Scholar
Reicher, S. D. (2007) Rethinking the paradigm of prejudice. South African Journal of Psychology 37:820–34.Google Scholar
Riordan, C. (1978) Equal status interracial contact: A review and revision of the concept. International Journal of Intercultural Relations 2:161–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roberts, A. & Ash, T. G. (2009) Civil resistance and power politics: The experience of non-violent action from Ghandi to the present. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Rose, A. M. (1956) Intergroup relations vs. prejudice: Pertinent theory for the study of social change. Social Problems 4:173–76.Google Scholar
Rude, G. (1981) The crowd in history: A study of popular disturbances in France and England, 1730–848. Lawrence and Wishart.Google Scholar
Rye, B. J. & Meaney, G. J. (2010) Self-defense, sexism, and etiological beliefs: Predictors of attitudes toward gay and lesbian adoption. Journal of GLBT Family Studies 6:1–24.Google Scholar
Saenger, G. (1953) The social psychology of prejudice. Harper.Google Scholar
Saguy, T., Tausch, N., Dovidio, J. F. & Pratto, F. (2009) The irony of harmony: Intergroup contact can produce false expectations for equality. Psychological Science 20:114–21.Google Scholar
Said, E. (1993) Culture and imperialism. Knopf.Google Scholar
Samelson, F. (1978) From “race psychology” to “studies in prejudice”: Some observations on the thematic reversal in social psychology. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 14:265–78.Google Scholar
Saminaden, A., Loughnan, S. & Haslam, N. (2010) Afterimages of savages: Implicit associations between “primitive” peoples, animals, and children. British Journal of Social Psychology 49:91–105.Google Scholar
Sampson, E. E. (1999) Dealing with differences: An introduction to the social psychology of prejudice. Harcourt Brace.Google Scholar
Schuman, H., Steeh, C., Bobo, L. & Krysan, M. (1997) Racial attitudes in America: Trends and interpretations (revised edition). Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Sears, D. O., van Laar, C., Carrillo, M. & Kosterman, R. (1997) Is it really racism? The origins of white Americans' opposition to race targeted policies. Public Opinion Quarterly 61:16–53.Google Scholar
Shelton, J. N. (2000) A reconceptualization of how we study issues of racial prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Review 4:374–90.Google Scholar
Shelton, J. N. & Richeson, J. A. (2006) Interracial interactions: A relational approach. Advances in experimental social psychology 38:121–81.Google Scholar
Sherif, M., Harvey, O. J., White, B. J., Hood, W. R. & Sherif, C. (1961) Intergroup conflict and cooperation: The robber's cave experiment. University of Oklahoma.Google Scholar
Sibley, C. G., Overall, N. C. & Duckitt, J. (2007) When women become more hostilely sexist toward their gender: The system-justifying effect of benevolent sexism. Sex Roles 57:743–54.Google Scholar
Sigelman, L. & Welch, S. (1993) The contact Hypothesis revisited: Black-white interaction and positive racial attitudes. Social Forces 71:781–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smelser, N. J. (1962) Theory of collective behaviour. Routledge and Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Sorensen, G. (1992) Utopianism in peace research: The Ghandian heritage. Journal of Peace Research 29:135–44.Google Scholar
Staub, E. (1989) The roots of evil: The origins of genocide and other group violence. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Stephan, W. G. (1983) Intergroup relations. In: Social psychology, ed. Perlman, D. & Cozby, P., pp. 414–41. Holt, Rinehart & Winston.Google Scholar
Stephan, W. G & Finlay, K. (1999) The role of empathy in improving intergroup relations. Journal of Social Issues 55:729–43.Google Scholar
Sugrue, T. J. (2010) Stories and legends. The Nation, June 7th, http://www.thenation.com/article/stories-and-legends.Google Scholar
Surace, S. J. & Seeman, M. (1968) Some correlates of civil rights activism. Social Forces 46:197–207.Google Scholar
Tajfel, H. & Turner, J. (1986) The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In: Psychology of intergroup relations, ed. Worchel, S. & Austin, W., pp. 7–24. Nelson-Hall.Google Scholar
Talaska, C. A., Fiske, S. T. & Chaiken, S. (2008) Legitimating racial discrimination: Emotions, not beliefs, best predict discrimination in a metaanalysis. Social Justice Research 21:263–96.Google Scholar
Tarrow, S. G. (2011) Power in movement: Social movements and contentious politics. 3rd ed. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Tausch, N., Saguy, T. & Singh, P. (2009) Contact between Muslims and Hindus: Benefits and limitations. Unpublished Manuscript.Google Scholar
Thompson, E. P. (1991) Customs in common. Penguin.Google Scholar
Tilly, C., Tilly, L. & Tilly, R. (1975) The rebellious century, 1830–1930. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Tropp, L. R., Hawi, D., van Laar, C. & Levin, S. (2012) Perceived discrimination, cross ethnic friendships and their effects on ethnic activism over time: A longitudinal investigation of three ethnic minority groups. British Journal of Social Psychology 51(2):257–72. DOI: 10.1111/j.2044-8309.2011.02050.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tuch, S. A. & Hughes, M. (1996) Whites' racial policy attitudes. Social Science Quarterly 77:723–41.Google Scholar
Turner, R. H. & Killian, L. M. (1987) Collective behaviour. Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Ulfelder, J. (2005) Contentious collective action and the breakdown of authoritarian regimes. International Political Science Review 26:311–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Zomeren, M., Postmes, T. & Spears, R. (2008) Toward an integrative social identity model of collective action: A quantitative research synthesis of three socio-psychological perspectives. Psychological Bulletin 134: 504–35.Google Scholar
van Zomeren, M., Spears, R., Fischer, A. & Leach, C. W. (2004) Put your money where your mouth is! Explaining collective action tendencies through group-based anger and group efficacy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 87:649–64.Google Scholar
Wenzel, M. (2001) Justice and identity: The significance of inclusion for perceptions of entitlement and the justice motive. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 26:157–76.Google Scholar
Wetherell, M. & Potter, J. (1992) Mapping the language of racism: Discourse and the legitimation of exploitation. Harvester Wheatsheaf.Google Scholar
Wheeler, M. E. & Fiske, S. T. (2005) Controlling racial prejudice: Socio-cognitive goals affect amygdala and stereotype activation. Psychological Science 16:56–63.Google Scholar
White, J. B. & Langer, E. J. (1999) Horizontal hostility: Relations between similar minority groups. Journal of Social Issues 55:537–59.Google Scholar
Wright, S. C. (2001) Strategic collective action: Social psychology and social change. In: Intergroup processes: Blackwell handbook of social psychology, ed. Brown, R. & Gaertner, S. L., Vol. 4, pp. 409–30. Blackwell.Google Scholar
Wright, S. C. & Baray, G. (2012) Models of social change in social psychology: Collective action or prejudice reduction, conflict or harmony. In: Beyond the “prejudice problematic”: Extending the social psychology of intergroup conflict, inequality and social change, ed. Dixon, J. & Levine, M., pp. 225–47. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Wright, S. C. & Lubensky, M. (2009) The struggle for social equality: Collective action vs. prejudice reduction. In: Intergroup misunderstandings: Impact of divergent social realities, ed. Demoulin, S., Leyens, J. P. & Dovidio, J. F., pp. 291–310. Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Zawadzki, B. (1948) Limitations of the scapegoat theory of prejudice. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 43(2):127–41.Google Scholar
Zunes, S. (1999) The role of non-violent action in the downfall of apartheid. The Journal of Modern African Studies 37:137–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar