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The Rise of Nationalism in the Habsburg Empire

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 February 2009

Peter F. Sugar
Peter F. Sugar
Affiliation:
University of Washington
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Extract

In 1848–49 Austria could have introduced reforms which conceivably might have insured her continued existence for many generations and possibly might have finally made a true state out of the Habsburg domains. … [In] the course of the two [subsequent] generations until 1918 there never appeared an equally promising opportunity for the empire to carry out reform without risking its disintegration. This is not to say that Austria should not have taken this risk, which was smaller at the time of the compromise in 1867 than it was in 1905 and smaller in 1905 at the height of the Hungarian crisis than it was in 1917, when Engels' ominous prediction finally came true that with the victory of the Russian Revolution Austria would disintegrate.

Type
Nationalism as a Disintegrating Force
Information
Austrian History Yearbook , Volume 3 , Issue 1 , January 1967 , pp. 91 - 120
Copyright
Copyright © Center for Austrian Studies, University of Minnesota 1967

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References

1 Kann, Robert A., Multinational Empire. Nationalism and National Reform in the Habsburg Monarchy, 1848–1918 (2 vols., New York: Columbia University Press, 1950), Vol. II, p. 297Google Scholar. For a similar statement, see Thomson, S. Harrison, Czechoslovakia in European History (2nd ed., Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1953), p. 210Google Scholar.

2 For Windischgrätz' plans, see Redlich, Josef, Das österreichische Staats- und Reichsproblem (2 vols., Leipzig: P. Reinhold, 1920–1926), Vol. I, Pt. 1, pp. 351–363Google Scholar; and Friedjung, Heinrich, Österreich von 1848 bis 1860 (2 vols., Stuttgart: J. G. Cotta, 1908–1912), Vol. I, pp. 144–150Google Scholar.

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4 On Löhner, see Kann, , The Multinational Empire, Vol. II, pp. 12–13Google Scholar. Utješenović-Ostrožinski's, “Programm zur onstituierung des Österreichischen Kaiserstaates nach dem Prinzipe der konstitutionellen Freiheit und der nationalen Gleichberechtigung” is printed as an appendix in Pejaković, Stephen (ed.), Aktenstücke zur Geschichte des kroatisch-slavonischen Landtages und der nationalen Bewegung vom Jahre 1848 (Vienna: Mechitharisten Buchdruckerei, 1861)Google Scholar. The views of Kavčič whose name is usually given as Kaučič, can be found in Springer, Anton H. (ed.), Protokolle des Verfassungsaussehusses im österreichischen Reiehstage, 1848–1849 (Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1885), pp. 23–24 and 117Google Scholar. Count Krasiński, Walerjan S., Panslavism and Germanism (London: T. C. Newby, 1848), contains the views of this reformer. Palacký's works are too well known to require listingGoogle Scholar.

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6 See especially Otto Bauer, , Die Nationalitätenfrage und die Sozialdemokratie. Vol. II of Max Adler and Rudolf Hilferding (eds.), Marx Studien (2nd ed., Vienna: Wiener Volksbuchhandlung, 1927) (the first edition appeared in 1907)Google Scholar; and Renner, Karl, Das Selbstbestimmungsrecht der Nationen in besonderer Anwendung auf Österreich (Vienna: F. Danticke, 1918)Google Scholar.

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19 For a discussion of this problem in the nineteenth century, see, among others, Zwitter, Fran, “Les nationality et les classes sociales,” Les problèmes nationaux dans la monarchie des Habsbourg (Belgrade: Comité National Yougoslave des Sciences Historiques, 1960), pp. 19–23Google Scholar; Hanák, Péter, “Probleme der Krise des Dualismus am Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts,” in Sándor, Vilmos and Hanák, Péter (eds.),Studien zur Geschichte der Österreichisch-JJngarischen Monarchie. In Studia Historica, Vol. LI (Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1961), pp. 337–382Google Scholar; Szabad, György, “Nacionalizmus és patriotizmus konfliktusa az abszolutizmus korában,” in Andics, Erzsébet (ed.), A magyar nacionalizmus kialakulása és története (Budapest: Kossuth Könyvkiadó, 1964), pp. 143–164Google Scholar; Hantsch, Hugo, Die Geschichte Osterreichs (2 yols., Graz: Styria, n. d.), Vol. IIGoogle Scholar, Ch. IV, Pts. 2 and 5; Jászi, The Dissolution of the Habsburg Monarchy, Pts. 4 and 5; Thomson,Czechoslovakia in European History, pp. 216–237; and Sugar, Peter F., “The Nature of the non-Germanic Societies under Habsburg Rule,” Slavic Review, Vol. XXII, No. 1 (March, 1963), pp. 1–30Google Scholar.

20 Marczali, Henrik, Az 1790–91-iki országgyüles (2 vols., Budapest: Magyar Tudományos Akadémia, 1907), Vol. II, pp. 161–164Google Scholar.

21 This useful expression appears repeatedly in Lemberg, Hans, Die nationale Gedankenwelt der Dekabristen. Vol. II of Kölner Historische Abhandlungen (Graz: Böhlau, 1963)Google Scholar.

22 There are concrete examples of the nobility's preferences. When Joseph II announced that he was willing to abolish the customs barrier between Hungary and the rest of his domains, as well as various local duties—an old demand of the Magyars—the Magyar nobility refused to consider this measure unless their traditional political rights were restored. Acsady, Ignácz, A magyar birodalom története (2 vols., Budapest: Athenaeum, 1904), Vol. II, p. 546Google Scholar; Molnár, Eric, Pamlényi, Ervin, and Szekely, Gyorgy (eds.),Magyarország története (2 vols., Budapest: Gondolat, 1964), Vol. I, pp. 390–391Google Scholar.

23 Numerous examples of this interesting breakdown of traditional or assumed solidarities occurred even before nationalism split certain groups such as the Czech and German nobles in Bohemia. The impoyerished nobles backed measures enacted by Joseph II which were objectionable to the wealthy members of their own estate. The same division occurred between the episcopate and the lower clergy. Within the ranks of the Hungarian nobility there were sharp divisions between gentry and magnates, Magyars and Croats, Transylvanians and Hungarians. Even among the peasantry we find certain divergences among those who were serfs and those who claimed freedom or even a status of nobility. Although the whole matter has still not been sufficiently studied, some interesting remarks concerning the peasantry can be found in the second half of Ágnes Várkonyi, “A nemzet, a haza fogalma a török harcok és a Habsburgellenes küzdelmek idején,” Andich, A magyar nacionalizmus, pp. 56–78. On the nobility, see Franzel's remarks in his Der Donauraum im Zeitalter des Nationalitdtenprinzips, p. 28.

24 Thomson, Czechoslovakia in European History, p. 126.

25 Suphan, Bernhard (ed.),Herders Sämtliche Werke (33 vols., Berlin: Weidmannsche Buchhandlung, 1877–1913), Vol. XVII, p. 59Google Scholar.

26 Ibid., p. 58.

27 Ibid., pp. 58–59.

28 Ibid., p. 51.

29 Schlegel, Friedrich, A Course of Lectures of Modern History (London: C. Bell and Sons, 1894), p. 306Google Scholar.

30 Ibid., p. 307.

31 Thomson,Czechoslovakia in European History, p. 191.

32 Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism, p. 552.

33 Franzel, Der Donauraum im Zeitalter des Nationalitatenprinzips, p. 46.

34 Thomson, Czechoslovakia in European History, p. 195.

35 The successor states of the Habsburg monarchy furnish good examples of this use of nationalism. Yugoslav nationalism was stressed to gain the loyalty of the three majority and several minority nationalities. Czechoslovak nationalism was supposed to serve the same purpose; in Rumania it was used to bridge the Regat-Transylvania controversy. Indian nationalism is being stressed at present to overcome the linguistic, ethnic, religious, and numerous other differences on the subcontinent, while in every new African and Asian state similar problems are attacked in the same manner.

36 As quoted in Kohn,The Idea of Nationalism, p. 348.

37 Franzel, Der Donauraum im Zeitalter des Nationalitatenprinzips, p. 67.

38 Ibid., p. 23.

39 The best known older studies dealing with the Military Border are von Engel, Johann C., Staatskunde und Geschichte Dalmatiens, Croatiens, und Slawoniens nebst einigen ungedruckten Denkmälern Ungarischer Geschichte (Halle: Gebauer, 1789)Google Scholar; Schwicker, Johann H., Geschichte der österreichischen Militärgrenze (Vienna: K. Prochaska, 1883)Google Scholar; Vaniček, Franz, Spezialgeschichte der Militärgrenze, aus Originalquellen und Quellenwerken geschöpft (4 vols., Vienna, 1875)Google Scholar. The best and most recent work on the subject is Gunther Rothenberg, E., The Austrian Military Border in Croatia, 1522–1747. Vol. XLVIII of Illinois Studies in the Social Sciences (Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1960)Google Scholar.

40 Palmer, Robert R., The Age of the Democratic Revolution. A Political History of Europe and America, 1760–1800 (2 vols., Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1959–1964), Vol. I, pp. 384–397Google Scholar.

41 Ibid., p. 397.

42 Ibid., p. 514.

43 The various versions of the oath drafts rejected by Leopold II can be found in Marczali, , Az 1790–91-iki országgyülés, Vol. II, pp. 7–69Google Scholar.

44 Palmer, , The Age of the Democratic Revolution, Vol. I, p. 394Google Scholar; Sugar, Peter F., “The Influence of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution in Eighteenth Century Hungary,” Journal of Central European Affairs, Vol. XVII, No. 4 (January, 1958), p. 347Google Scholar.

45 On Leopold II's reign, see, among other works, Silagi, Denis, Jakobiner in der Habsburger-Monarchie. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des aufgeklärten Absolutismus in Österreich. Vol. VI of Wiener Historische Studien (Vienna: Herold Verlag, 1962)Google Scholar; Kerner, Robert J., Bohemia in the Eighteenth Century. A Study in Political, Economic and Social History with Special Reference to the Reign of Leopold II, 1790–1792 (New York: Macmillan, 1932)Google Scholar; Wangermann, Ernst, From Joseph II to the Jacobin Trials. In Oxford Historical series, 2nd ser. (London: Oxford University Press, 1959)Google Scholar. The fullest and best study is Wandruszka's, AdamLeopold II., Erzherzog von Österreich, Grossherzog von Toskana, König von Ungarn und Böhmen, Römischer Kaiser (2 vols., Vienna: Verlag für Geschichte und Politik, 1963–1965)Google Scholar.

46 Marczali, , Az 1790–91-iki országgyülés, Vol. II, p. 205Google Scholar.

47 Zöllner, Geschichte Österreichs, p. 329.

48 On the Jacobin conspiracy, see the already cited works of Silagi and Wangermann. Among the older works see Fraknöi, Vilmos, Martinovicsé társainak Összeesk¨vése (2nd ed., Budapest: M. Ráth, 1884)Google Scholar, is still useful. The most complete work on the subject is Benda, Kálmán, A magyar jakobinusok iratai (3 vols., Budapest: Magyar Akadámiai Kiadó, 1952–1967)Google Scholar.

49 Gyalókai, Jenő, “A magyar nemes insurrectio reformtervei, 1797–1809,” Századok, Vol. LIX-LX, No. 2 (1926), p. 128Google Scholar.

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51 See my “The Nature of the non-Germanic Societies under Habsburg Rule.”.

52 Franzel, Der Donauraum im Zeitalter des Nationalitätenprinzips, p. 18.

53 Zwitter,Les problèmes nationaux dans la monarchie des Habsbourg, p. 41. Zwitter's figures are based on estimates or statistics presented by Hungarian authors and are, therefore, not likely to underestimate the Magyar population.

54 Palmer, , The Age of the Democratic Revolution, Vol. I, pp. 388–389Google Scholar.

55 Miskolczy, Gyula, A horvát kérdés története és irományai a rendi állam korában (2 vols., Budapest: Magyar Történelmi Társulat, 1927–1928), Vol. I, p. 351Google Scholar.

56 As quoted in Kann, , The Multinational Empire, Vol. I, p. 116Google Scholar.

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58 Peter F. Sugar, “External and Domestic Roots of East European Nationalism.” To be published shortly in Peter F. Sugar and Ivo J. Lederer (eds.), The History of Eastern European Nationalism.