¹ Kaneshiro Munekazu, “Esunikku gurupu to shite no Okinawa-jin” (“Okinawans” as an ethnic group), Ningen kagaku 37 (1992), 40.

² According to municipal government records, more than 13,000 tons of bombs were dropped on the city and its environs. Yūhi: Osaka no Okinawa (Launching Forth: The Okinawans of Osaka), Osaka Okinawa Kenjin Rengō-kai (1997), 84..

³ This total figure comes from the Cornerstone of Peace monument opened in Okinawa's Peace Memorial Park in 1995 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the war's end. Among the dead, this source lists 74,796 Japanese from other prefectures and 14,005 Americans.

⁴ Yūhi, 79.

⁵ Nakama Keiko, “Nitchū sensō-ki no zai-Han Okinawa-jin” (Okinawans in Osaka during the Sino-Japanese War [of 1937-45]), Ōsaka Jinken Hakubutsu-kan kiyo (Bulletin of the Osaka Human Rights Museum) 4 (2000), 70, n. 44.

⁶ Okinawa Kenjin-kai Hyōgo-ken Honbu, ed., Shima o deta tami no sensō taiken-shū (Collected War Experiences of People Who Left the Islands), Okinawa Kenjin-kai Hyōgo-ken Honbu (1995), 160.

⁷ Nakama, “Nitchū,” 70, n. 44 and Maeda Yoshihiro, et al., ed., Deigo: 21-seiki o hiraku kinen-shi (Deigo flowers: volume commemorating the start of the 21st century), Sakai Okinawa Ken-jin Kurabu (2001). Deigo, translated as “Indian coral bean,” is the official flower of Okinawa Prefecture.

⁸ Takarazuka iryō seikyō nyūsu (Newspaper of the Takarazuka Medical Services Cooperative) 52 (January 1, 1986), 10.

⁹ Kaneshiro, “Esunikku gurupu to shite no Okinawa-jin,” 40.

¹⁰ Estimated figures in Okinawa Ken-jin Kai Hyogo-ken Honbu, comp., “Anketo shūkei ichi-ran hyō“ (Chart of aggregate survey totals) (2000).

¹¹ Nakama, “Nitchū,” 44-47.

¹² October 15, 1938 edition, quoted in Nakama, “Nitchū,” 48.

¹³ January 15, 1939 edition, quoted in Ibid., 48.

¹⁴ Hyōgo-ken Honbu, Sensô taiken-shû, 45.

¹⁵ January 15, 1939 issue, quoted in Nakama, “Nitchu,”48-49. If Okinawans were more likely to change jobs than mainland workers, it might have been, as previously noted, a result of management policies that sought to maximize profits by discriminating against them in wages, benefits, and working conditions.

¹⁶ Ibid.

¹⁷ Hyōgo-ken Honbu, Sensô taiken-shû, 57.

¹⁸ Nakama, “Nitchū,” 50-51.

¹⁹ Hyōgo-ken Honbu, Sensô taiken-shû, 187-188.

²⁰ Quoted in Nakama, “Nitchū,” 59-60. The term “Ryūkyū” has acquired a more positive resonance recently amidst the continuing “Okinawa boom.” It appears in the lyrics of popular songs by Okinawan rock bands and was the title of the 1995 c.d. Ryukyu Magic (Air-4001, Tokyo).

²² Shimota Seiji, Michi no shima (Island paths), Shin-Nippon Shuppan-sha (1978), 302303.

²³ Ryūkyū shimpō, 240-241.

²⁴ See Alan Christy, “The Making of Imperial Subjects in Okinawa,” positions east asia cultures critique 1.3 (Winter, 1993), pp. 607-639.

607-639.

²⁵ Quoted in Nakama, “Nitchū,”. 61.

²⁶ Ibid.

²⁷ Ibid., 60-62.

²⁸ Ibid.

²⁹ See interviews with Okinawan residents of Osaka in the series “Ōsaka to Okinawa,” Mainichi shimbun (March 9 to April 9, 1987).

³⁰ Ibid.

³¹ Terrence E. Cook, Separation, Assimilation, or Accommodation: Contrasting Ethnic Minority Policies, Praeger (2003). 100.

³² Quoted in Nakama, “Nitchū,” 63. The author is identified by the Okinawan surame Aka.

³³ Ibid., 62-3.

³⁴ Tomiyama Ichirō, “On Becoming ‘a Japanese:’ The Community of Oblivion and Memories of the Battlefield,” Yoseba (March, 1993). Adapted and expanded in Senjo no kioku (Memories of the Battlefield), Nihon Keizai Hyoronsha, 1995. Trans. Noah McCormack and posted at Japan Focus, October 26, 2005.

³⁵ Yūhi, 77-78.

³⁶ Although celebrated at the time as as a suicide attack, it was later learned that the soldiers had been told they would have time to run clear of the explosions. The fuses, ignited before their advance, burned more rapidly than expected, making escape impossible and their bodies were blown to bits. The three soldiers from Kyushu were members of Japan's long- oppressed Buraku minority. See Ueno Hidenobu, Tennō heika banzai: bakudan san- yūshi josetsu (Long live the emperor: an explanation of human bombs: the three brave warriors; Chikuma Shobō (1989).

³⁷ Maeda, Deigo, 44-46.

³⁸ Nakama, “Nitchū,” 41-42.

³⁹ Ibid., 54.

⁴⁰ Ibid., 45.

⁴¹ Maeda, Deigo,,50 and Yūhi, 80.

⁴² Okinawan folk music has become enormously popular throughout Japan in recent years. These songs are rarely performed, but occasionally as satire of militarism.

⁴³ Nakama, “Nitchū,” 57.

⁴⁴ Ibid. “Ballad of the Warrior” is included the collection “Okinawa no min'yō” (Okinawan folk songs) in Toma Ichirō, ed., Ryūkyū geinō jiten (Dictionary of the Ryukyuan performing arts), Naha Shuppan-sha (1992), 597.

⁴⁵ Quoted in Nakama, “Nitchū,” 57-59.

⁴⁶ Ibid., 58.

⁴⁷ Reprinted in Yamanokuchi Baku shishū, 61 and translated in Steve Rabson, Righteous Cause or Tragic Folly: Changing Views of War in Modern Japanese Poetry, Center for Japanese Studies, University of Michigan, 1998), 10.

⁴⁸ Hyōgo-ken Honbu, Sensô taiken-shû, 263-264.

⁴⁹ Ibid., 198-199.

⁵⁰ Hyōgo-ken Honbu, Sensô taiken-shû, 83-84.

⁵¹ Herbert P. Bix, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan, HarperCollins (2000), 407.

⁵² Japanese press reports often exaggerated the military's successes in China.

⁵³ Hyōgo-ken Honbu, Sensô taiken-shû, 178.

⁵⁴ Nakama, “Nitchū,” 46-47. Washino emphasizes her identity as a “citizen of Japan,” downplaying “any special circumstances of people from Okinawa Prefecture.”

⁵⁵ Yūhi, 81-83.

⁵⁶ Hyōgo-ken Honbu, Sensô taiken-shû, 76.

⁵⁷ Ibid., 91-92.

⁵⁸ Ibid., 187-189.

⁵⁹ Ibid., 208.

⁶⁰ Ibid., 148.

⁶¹ Ibid., 188.

⁶² Ibid., 45-48.

⁶³ Ibid., 205.

⁶⁴ Ibid., 73.

⁶⁵ Ibid., 129-130.

⁶⁶ Interviewed by Miyagi Kimiko in “Osaka kara Henoko e: Kinjō Yuūi-san ni kiku,” Keeshi kaji 51 (June, 2006), 58-65.

⁶⁷ Isagawa Hiroshi, “‘Jigoku’ datta sokai seikatsu,” (Life in “hell” as an evacuee), in Senka to ue: Ginowan shimin ga tsuzuru sensō taiken (War ravages and starvation: The collected writings of Ginowan City residents on their war experiences), ed. Ginowan-shi Gajimaru no Kai, Kōbundō Insatsu (1979), 305-315.

⁶⁸ Hyōgo-ken Honbu, Sensô taiken-shû, 29.

⁶⁹ Ibid., 51-53.

⁷⁰ Ibid.

⁷¹ Ibid.

⁷² Ibid., 32-33.

⁷³ Ibid., 83-84.

⁷⁴ Ibid., 46-7.

⁷⁵ Maeda, Deigo, 45. There was also a version of this song in Okinawa dialect.

⁷⁶ Kinjō Seikō, “Okinawa no Kokumin-gakkō jidai” (The age of “national schools”), Keizai shicho (January, 1972) 102.

⁷⁷ Records of the Japanese Army Ministry show that, besides failing to register their new addresses, thousands of Japanese men avoided the draft by lying about their ages or family circumstances, forging names, faking adoptions, feigning illnesses, physically mutilating themselves, or fleeing as far away as America. Such statistics belie the stereotype, widely purveyed during and after the war, of the Japanese people as monolithically fanatical militarists. See Rabson, Righteous Cause, 158 and Takashi Fujitani, “Kindai Nihon ni okeru kenryoku no tekunorojii: guntai, ‘chihô,’ shintai,” translated by Umemori Naoyuki, Shisô 845 (November 1994).

⁷⁸ In the August 27, 1938 edition of Ōsaka Mainichi shimbun, quoted inNakama, “Nitchū,” 55.

⁷⁹ Nakama, “Nitchū,” 55.

⁸⁰ In the September 1, 1938 edition of Ōsaka Kyūyō shimpō, quoted in Ibid., 56-57.

⁸¹ In the October 15, 1938 edition, quoted in Ibid, 43-44.

⁸² In the June 15, 1939 edition, quoted in Ibid., 56.

⁸³ Ibid., 56.

⁸⁴ The article summarized the history of discrimination against Okinawans in Japan, but asserted erroneously that Okinawans were assigned in the Japanese military mainly in labor battalions and as servants to mainland officers. Such misinformation might well have been publicized by the U.S. military for propaganda purposes at the start of the Battle of Okinawa. American officers repeatedly asserted, during and after the battle, that Okinawans’ social status in Japan proved that they were not really Japanese. This claim was disseminated among both Americans and Okinawans during the fighting to separate Okinawans from the “enemy Japanese military,” though it included Okinawan soldiers. After the war it became an excuse for prolonging the postwar U.S. military occupation. General Douglas MacArthur, supreme commander of occupation forces in mainland Japan and Okinawa, strongly advocated that the U.S. retain control of Okinawa because of its strategic location. He told George F. Kennan in March of 1948 that “the people [of Okinawa] are not Japanese, and had never been assimilated when they had come to the Japanese main islands.” Quoted in Yoshida Kensei, Democracy Betrayed: Okinawa Under U.S. Occupations, Center for East Asian Studies, Western Washington University (2001), 39.

⁸⁵ See Oyakawa Takayoshi, Ashiato (Footprints), Matsuei Insatsu, 26 on Okinawans singled out for harassment in the Imperial Army. See also Hyōgo-ken Honbu, Sensô taiken-shû, 184, Ishihara Masaie, Gyakusatsu no shima: Kōgun to shinmin no matsuro(Island of massacres: The last days of the emperor's army and subjects), Baneisha (1978) and Ishihara, Shōgen, Okinawa-sen: Senjō no kōkei Dai 1-kan (Testimony: Witnesses to the Battle of Okinawa, Volume 1), Aoki Shoten (1984). Also see Tsuha, Heiwa Shiryōkan, 68-75; Norma Field, In the Realm of a Dying Emperor: Japan at Century's End) Vintage (1993), 56-69; and Michael Molasky and Steve Rabson, ed., Southern Exposure: Modern Japanese Literature from Okinawa, University of Hawaii Press (2000), 22.

Many Okinawans have described prejudice and discrimination they encountered on the mainland after 1945. See, for example, Uda Shigeki, Uwa nu ukami-sama (Sacred Pigs: The life of Tokeshi Kōtoku), Uda Shuppan Kikaku (1999), 173-96, and Ōta, Ōsaka no Uchinanchu.

⁸⁶ Ienaga Saburō, Taiheiyō sensō, Iwanami Shoten (1968). Translated by Frank Baldwin as The Pacific War, Pantheon (1978), 53-54.

⁸⁷ This was a period of extreme rural poverty in Japan when farm families, especially in the country's northeastern region, sold their daughters into prostitution for brothels in Japan's cities and abroad.

⁸⁸ Ienaga, The Pacific War, 54.

⁸⁹ Takashi Fujitani, “Racism under Fire: Korean Imperial Soldiers in Japanese World War II Discourses on Nation, Empire and Ethnos,” invited lecture to the Reischauer Institute for Japanese Studies at Harvard University, May 2, 2003.

⁹⁰ Hyōgo-ken Honbu, Sensô taiken-shû, 184.

⁹¹ For a thorough account of young recruits’ experiences in the Imperial Japanese Army, see Edward J. Drea, “In the Army Barracks of Imperial Japan,” Armed Forces and Society 15.3 (Spring, 1989), 329-348..

⁹² Nakama, “Nitchū,” 52-53.

⁹³ From the December 1, 1939 edition of the Ōsaka Kyūyō shimpō, quoted in Nakama, “ Nitchū,” 52.

⁹⁴ Oyakawa, Ashiato, 26.

⁹⁵ Hyōgo-ken Honbu, Sensô taiken-shû, 205-207.

⁹⁶ Ienaga, The Pacific War, 52.

⁹⁷ Oyakawa, Ashiato, 28-29.

⁹⁸ Four of the most notorious incidents are: (1) The Nanjing Massacre, previously known as the Rape of Nanking. Japanese troops went on a rampage after occupying the city in December of 1937, raping women and girls, and killing large numbers of Chinese civilians and prisoners-of-war. (2) After Japanese forces captured them in the Philippines, thousands of Filipino and American prisoners-of-war died of starvation or exhaustion, or were executed, during the Bataan Death March of April, 1942.

They were among hundreds of thousands of P.O.W.'s the Japanese military captured in the Philippines, China, and Southeast Asia who became forced laborers under abominable conditions, resulting in many deaths. (3) The Japanese military maintained “comfort stations” in or near areas of conflict where hundreds of thousands of women and girls, many of them captured or transported by the Japanese military, were forced to have sex daily with large numbers of Japanese soldiers. The largest number were from Korea and China. (4) The Japanese military carried out chemical and biological warfare experiments on imprisoned Chinese, including the removal of vital organs and deliberate infection with fatal diseases; and conducted vivisection experiments on American air crews captured in Japan. [See John W. Dower, War Without Mercy Dower: Race and Power in the Pacific War, Pantheon (1986) in which the author also describes atrocities committed by Allied forces during in the Pacific War.

⁹⁹ Oyakawa, Ashiato, 31-45

¹⁰⁰ Ibid. 31-33

¹⁰¹ Ibid., 41-42

¹⁰² Ibid., 33-4. Ishikawa Tatsuzo's 1938 novel Ikite iru heitai, based on the author's observations of the war in China, includes passages describing atrocities by Japanese soldiers against Chinese civilians. The Japanese government banned this work and prosecuted Ishikawa who received a suspended sentence. It is translated as Soldiers Alive by Zeljko Cipris (University of Hawai'i Press (2003).

¹⁰³ Oyakawa, Ashiato, 34. These seizures observed by Oyakawa were part of a military allocation policy that required Japanese forces in China outside Manchuria to “live off the land” so that Japan's Kwantung Army in Manchuria could maintain full strength and readiness in case of a conflict with the Soviet Union.

¹⁰⁴ Oyakawa, Ashiato, 37-40.

¹⁰⁵ Ibid.,, 34-35.

¹⁰⁶ Hyōgo-ken Honbu, Sensô taiken-shû, 35.

¹⁰⁷ Ibid., 104.

¹⁰⁸ Dower, War Without Mercy, 61-71.

¹⁰⁹ George Feifer, The Battle of Okinawa: The Blood and the Bomb, The Lyons Press (2001), 372-374.

¹¹⁰ Ibid., 35.

¹¹¹ Ibid., 78-79.

¹¹² Ibid., 11.

¹¹³ Ibid., 82-83.

¹¹⁴ Ibid., 82-83.

¹¹⁵ Ibid., 49-50. For an account of the fighting in Saipan and the subsequent controversy about how civilians died there, see Haruko Taya Cook, “The Myth of the Saipan Suicides,” The Quarterly of Military History 7.3 (Spring, 1995), 12-19.

¹¹⁶ Figures in Dower, War Without Mercy, 298-289. Also see Bix, Hirohito, 475.

¹¹⁷ Hyōgo-ken Honbu, Sensô taiken-shû, 140-142.

¹¹⁸ Ibid.

¹¹⁹ Ibid. This was one of the bizarre consequences of Japan's “red purge” that was a byproduct of McCarthy era witch-hunts in the United States. In total, more than 27,000 were purged from government, universities, public schools, and private companies. See Hirata Tetsuo and John Dower, “Japan's Red Purge: Lessons from a Saga of Suppression of Free Speech and Thought,” Japan Focus website, July 9, 2007,

¹²⁰ Ienaga, The Pacific War, 150.

¹²¹ Ibid., 233-234.

¹²² Hyōgo-ken Honbu, Sensô taiken-shû, 147.

¹²³ The estimated total doubles to approximately 140,000 when subsequent deaths from burns and radiation are included. See George Feifer, The Battle of Okinawa, 12 and 408.

¹²⁴ Quoted in David McCullough, Truman, Simon and Schuster (1992), 455.

¹²⁵ Deaths from the attack and its aftereffects of burns and radiation are estimated at 70,000. See Feifer, The Battle of Okinawa, 408.

¹²⁶ See Merle Miller, Plain Speaking: An Oral Biography of Harry S. Truman, Berkley Publishing Corporation (1974) Truman's popular nickname “give ‘em hell Harry” carries grimly ironic overtones, considering that, as commander-in-chief, he gave the orders to turn Japanese cities into infernos of death.

¹²⁷ Figure cited in Andrew Gordon, ed., Postwar Japan as History, University of California Press (1993), 225.

¹²⁸ When it came to the saturation bombing of cities, Japanese were perpetrators as well as victims. Bix describes the Imperial Navy's bombing of Chungking and other large Chinese cities as “indiscriminate” and “using many types of antipersonnel explosives…. In the first two days of raids, they reportedly killed more than five thousand Chinese noncombatants and caused enormous damage” (Bix, Hirohito, 364). In February of 1945, three months before the end of the war in Europe, Allied aircraft firebombed Dresden, Germany, killing an estimated 135,000 in a city with no facilities of significant military value. This was one month before the firebombings of Tokyo and Ōsaka in March.

¹²⁹ Interviewed in Errol Morris's 2003 documentary film “The Fog of War.” [130] Figure of 97,032 for the firebombing of Tokyo is cited in Dower, War Without Mercy, 298. Also see Peter J. Kuznick, “The Decision to Risk the Future: The Atomic Bomb and the Apocalyptic Narrative,” Japan Focus, July 23, 2007; and Mark Selden, “A Forgotten Holocaust: U.S. Bombing Strategy, the Destruction of Japanese Cities and the American Way of War from World War II to Iraq,” Japan Focus, May 2, 2007.

¹³¹ Uda, Uwa, 163-164.

¹³² Figures cited in Yūhi 50, 84.

¹³³ Hyōgo-ken Honbu, Sensō taiken-shû, 92 and 263. Measured at 7.2 magnitude, it destroyed 512,846 homes and buildings, and caused 6,433 deaths in southern Hyōgo Prefecture. Here and note 85, 135, and 161 problems of spacing. Also, please eplace all circumflexes e.g. here notes 14, 17, 19 and many others such as 138, 159, 161, 163 with the standard macron: Hyōgo.

¹³⁴ The inadequacy of Japan's air defenses is described in Gordon Daniels, “The Great Tokyo Air Raid, 9-10 March, 1945,” in ed. W.G. Beasley, ed., Modern Japan: Aspects of History, Literature, and Society, University of California Press (1975), 119.

¹³⁵ Hyōgo-ken Honbu, Sensō taiken-shû, 47-48.

¹³⁶ Ibid., p. 76.

¹³⁷ Ienaga, The Pacific War, 141, Maeda, Deigo, 44-51, and Hyogo-ken Honbu, Sensô taiken- shû, 46.

¹³⁸ Hyōgo-ken Honbu, Sensô taiken-shû, 88.

¹³⁹ Ibid., 58.

¹⁴⁰ Yūhi, pp. 83-86.

¹⁴¹ Ibid., 87 and Tsuha, Heiwa Shiryōkan, 54.

¹⁴² The chrysanthemum is the flower forming the official crest of the Japanese imperial family.

¹⁴³ Figures cited in Bix, Hirohito, 485.

¹⁴⁴ Feifer, The Battle of Okinawa, 90-96.

¹⁴⁵ Tsuha, Heiwa Shiryōkan, 40.

¹⁴⁶ “Sute-ishi,” literally “throwaway stone,” referring to the game of go.

¹⁴⁷ Tsuha, Heiwa Shiryōkan, 56-90.

¹⁴⁸ Ibid, p. 90.

¹⁴⁹ Feifer, The Battle of Okinawa, 341 and Tonaki Morita, “Okinawa shinwa no saikō” (Reconsidering some myths about Okinawa), Keeshi kaji 47 (June, 2005), 60-65.

¹⁵⁰ Kadena Town in central Okinawa was the location of the Japanese military's “Central Airfield,” captured by American forces during the first days of the Battle of Okinawa. After the war, the American military seized surrounding farmlands for a vastly expanded “Kadena Air Base” which is now the largest American air installation outside the U.S., occupying more than 60% of Kadena Town. [Anywhere! That deserves to be highlighted in the text perhaps.

¹⁵¹ Hyōgo-ken Honbu, Sensô taiken-shû, 25.

¹⁵² Eyewitness accounts of the battle also describe close camaraderie between Okinawans and mainland soldiers. See Jo Nobuko Martin, A Princess Lily of the Ryukyus, Shin Nippon Kyōiku Tosho (1984). Martin writes from firsthand experience as a member of the Himeyuri gakutō-tai (Princess lily student brigade) comprised of high school girls and their teachers conscripted to serve as battlefield medics. Many were killed in the fighting or committed suicide to avoid capture.

¹⁵³ Interviewed in July, 1999.

¹⁵⁴ Hyōgo-ken Honbu, Sensô taiken-shû, 262, and 270.

¹⁵⁵ The term “palm fern hell” refers to times of famine in the Ryukyu Kingdom when people ate the palm fern (sotetsu) plant to avoid starvation. The poisonous portions had to be carefully removed.

¹⁵⁶ This dish came to be known as “Mobil tempura,” and often caused diarrhia.

¹⁵⁷ Hyōgo-ken Honbu, Sensô taiken-shû, 276-279.

¹⁵⁸ Ibid., 244.

¹⁵⁹ Hyōgo-ken Honbu, Sensô taiken-shû, 222. Although Gushi's outrage is understandable, she overestimates U.S. reconnaissance capabilities. The Navy learned the positions of ships from decrypted Japanese messages, and was able to track them with submarines. But these messages did not necessarily specify the cargo, so U.S. submarines attacked merchant ships which they thought might be transporting weapons. Some they torpedoed not only carried Japanese civilian evacuees, but also American and other Allied prisoners of war who died by the hundreds in the explosions or from drowning.

¹⁶⁰ Yōju 35, 74-75.

¹⁶¹ Hyōgo-ken Honbu, Sensô taiken-shû, 266. Also see Shinzato Keiji, et al., Okinawa-ken no rekishi (The history of Okinawa Prefecture), Yamakawa, (1980), p. 223; and, in English, M.D. Morris, Okinawa: A Tiger by the Tail, Hawthorn (1968), 102. Violent crimes committed by U.S. forces reached a recorded peak of more than 400 per year during the Vietnam War. See “Introduction” in Steve Rabson, trans., Okinawa: Two Postwar Novellas, Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley (1989, reprinted 1996), 28-31

¹⁶² Rabson, Two Postwar Novellas, 2 and 29 and George Feifer, Tennozan: The Battle of Okinawa and the Atomic Bomb, Ticknor and Fields, (1992). 372-374. Rapes and other serious crimes are still committed by individuals among the approximately 30,000 U.S. forces and 20,000 military dependents stationed in Okinawa today. Sexual assaults by individuals among the 6,000 Japan Self Defense Force personnel have also been reported in recent years.

¹⁶³ The 32^nd Army in Okinawa applied the Japanese military's 1944 guideline entitled “Soldiers and Civilians Live Together and Die Together.” See Ôe Kenzaburô, “Misreading, Espionage and ‘Beautiful Martyrdom for the Country”: On Hearing the District Court Verdict in the Okinawa ‘Mass Suicides’ Case,” article in Sekai (June, 2008) translated by Scott Burba in Japan Focus (October 5, 2008) at.

¹⁶⁴ Molasky and Rabson, Southern Exposure, 22. Ōe writes, “The 32^nd Army issued an order stating, ‘Effective immediately: The use of any language other than standard Japanese is prohibited, regardless of military or army civilian employment. Anyone caught conversing in the Okinawan language will be punished as a spy.”

¹⁶⁵ Hyōgo-ken Honbu, Sensô taiken-shû, 250.

¹⁶⁶ Tsuha, Heiwa Shiryōkan, 47.

¹⁶⁷ Bix, Hirohito, 487-490.

¹⁶⁸ Tsuha, Heiwa Shiryōkan, 90.