Based on the interest of organic and conventional farmers in Iowa in long-term analysis of organic systems, the Neely-Kinyon Long-Term Agroecological Research (LTAR) site was established in 1998 to examine the agronomic and economic performance of conventional and organic systems, using certified organic production practices. We report the results of the economic analysis from 3 years of production (1999–2001). Using organic price premiums for organic crops, returns for corn within the organic corn-soybean-oat and corn-soybean-oat-alfalfa rotations were significantly greater than conventional corn-soybean rotation returns (US$126 ha−1). Com returns were not significantly different between the two organic rotations, at US$655 ha−1 and US$674 ha−1, respectively. Returns for soybean within the organic corn-soybean-oat and com-soybean-oat-alfalfa rotations were not significantly different, at US$1233 ha−1 and US$1326 ha−1, respectively. Organic soybean returns were significantly greater than conventional soybean crop returns (US$235 ha−1) in the corn-soybean rotation. Rotational 3-year average returns were US$180 ha−1 for the conventional corn-soybean rotation, compared to US$734 ha−1 for the organic corn-soybean-oat and US$739 ha−1 for the organic com-soybean-oat-alfalfa rotation.

In Europe, the perennial stinging nettle was cultivated during the 19th century until the Second World War and has a long history as a fiber plant. Clone varieties dating back to the early 20th century are still maintained at European research institutions. The fiber content of clones ranges from 1.2 to 16% dry matter, and fiber yields range from 0.14 to 1.28 Mg ha−1. Varietal purity of fiber nettle can only be achieved by planting cuttings. The harvesting of fiber starts in the second year of growth and the crop may produce well for several years. Several agronomic practices influence fiber quality, but causal relations are not yet well understood. Various parts of the fiber nettle plant can be used as food, fodder and as raw material for different purposes in cosmetics, medicine, industry and biodynamic agriculture. Organically produced fibers are in demand by the green textile industry and show potential that is economically promising.

A simple method of estimating changes in biologically active soil carbon (C) could help evaluate soil quality impacts of alternative management practices. Most reports of permanganate for active C determination use highly concentrated solutions (0.333 M) that are difficult to work with and tend to react with a large fraction of soil C that is not well distinguished from total organic C. We report on a highly simplified method in which dilute, slightly alkaline KMnO4 reacts with the most readily oxidizable (active) forms of soil C, converting Mn(VII) to Mn(II), and proportionally lowering absorbance of 550 nm light. The amount of soil C that reacted increased with concentration of KMnO4 used (0.01 to 0.1 M), degree of soil drying (moist fresh soil to air-dried for 24 hour) and time of shaking (1–15 minutes). Shaking of air-diy soil in a 0.02 M KMnO4 solution for 2 minutes produced consistent and management-sensitive results, both in the laboratory and with a field kit that used a hand-held colorimeter. Addition of 0.1 M. CaCl2 to the permanganate reagent enhanced settling of the soil after shaking, eliminating the need for centrifugaron in the field kit. Results from the laboratory and field-kit protocols were nearly identical (R2 = 0.98), as were those from an inter-laboratory sample exchange (R2 = 0.91). The active soil C measured by the new procedure was more sensitive to management effects than total organic C, and more closely related to biologically mediated soil properties, such as respiration, microbial biomass and aggregation, than several other measures of soil organic C.

The Pennsylvania Association for Sustainable Agriculture (PASA) is a grassroots organization that facilitates the exchange of sustainable farming practices among its members, creates marketing opportunities for local farmers, and promotes consumer awareness and support for sustainable agriculture. Interviews with PASA's board members and staff, content analyses of PASA's literature, and a mail survey and spatial analysis of PASA's members—who include both farmers and members who do not farm—were used to examine members' characteristics, why they value being members, and the philosophies and strategies that guide the organization's successes. Results indicate that by embracing a broad definition of sustainable agriculture, PASA promotes profitable and environmentally sound farming practices to a diversity of farmers. Networking with a broad cross-section of local and regional organizations and institutions has enabled PASA to use the expertise of community leaders and share fundraising to develop marketing opportunities for farmers. Linking sustainable agriculture with priorities of community economic development has brought farmers to urban planning tables, increased inner city access to fresh, local food, and increased the economic viability of local farmers. PASA's experiences exemplify the opportunities and tensions involved with networking with mainstream institutions to gain greater support for the sustainable agriculture community. PASA provides one model of how sustainable agriculture organizations can play an integral role in supporting sustainable agriculture.

Animal production in US agriculture during 1997 was compared with Holmes County, Ohio, in which half the farms belonged to the agrarian Amish whose small farms have been successful. To compare the intensity of animal production in regard to land that was already devoted solely to domestic feed, the two systems were scaled so that their average farm sizes contained equal land areas devoted to domestic feed and then their animal production per farm was adjusted by the same scaling. By breeding populations, as well as large imports of feed, feeder pigs, calves, and broiler chicks. Holmes County produced three times more milk, four times more broilers, about the same amount of eggs and cattle, and twice the pigs per scaled farm, and hence per given land area, as in the US. Despite the average farm size in Holmes County having been 40% smaller than in Ohio overall, this production yielded more than twice the energy and protein per scaled farm, or per given land area, compared to the US, and required almost twice the feed and 85% as much grazed pasture forage per farm. This was in accord with the fact that feed consumption in Holmes County was twice its harvested crop production, implying a net feed import equal to its crop production. The latter fact was the main contribution to the productivity of Holmes County in excess of the US, and also suggested there would be serious problems in widespread adoption of intensive animal production in regard to agricultural markets, soil fertility and farm nutrient losses through manure application. Energy conversion efficiency for the five animal products and breeding populations was greater in Holmes County than the US (10 and 7%, respectively) and likewise for protein (22 and 13%). Besides imported feed, the higher efficiency of Holmes County was also due to its greater emphasis on milk production, which has benefited from USDA milk price support, modern dairy genetics and dairy nutrition programs. The lower overall efficiency of the US has been partly a result of the fact that beef production and breeding, judged by feed alone, have been the least efficient of the five animal products in energy conversion and nearly the least for protein, regardless of the fact that among the five products, beef cattle are the only animals that nationally derived much of their nutrition from the large national area of grazing land.

Spring crop growth is often influenced by water stress and lower soil temperature in the northern Canadian prairies. Tillage system effects on soil temperature, moisture and establishment of barley and canola in silt loam and sandy loam soils in northern British Columbia were investigated in 1992 and 1993. The tillage systems were: no-tillage (NT), modified no-tillage where surface residue was pushed aside from a 7.5cm zone above the planting rows (MNT), and conventional tillage (CT). The MNT and CT had higher weekly maximum and weekly mean seed zone temperatures than NT. Mean weekly maximum seed-zone soil temperature was 1.6°C lower in MNT and 3.7°C lower in NT than in CT during the first 10 weeks after planting (WAP) in 1992. Compared to NT and MNT, barley in CT was slow to establish during the first three WAP in the silt loam in 1992 and 1993, and in the sandy loam in 1992, due to early water stress from low rainfall. Barley emergence was delayed by 6 days in NT and 11 days in CT in 1992 and by 3 days in NT and 7 days in CT in 1993 compared to MNT in the silt loam soil. Early in the growing season, barley growth was retarded more in the CT than NT and MNT at both sites. Canola growth was significantly improved in the MNT over that in the NT and CT in 1993. The MNT was more beneficial for crop establishment during prolonged dry periods than CT, and for emergence and growth compared with NT under extremely wet soil conditions.

Despite efforts to develop intensive poultry production, family poultry (FP) is still very important in low-income, food-deficit countries (LIFDCs). In LIFDCs, the keeping of poultry by local communities has been practiced for many generations. FP is an appropriate system for supplying the fast-growing human population with high-quality protein. It can also provide additional income to the generally resource-poor small farmers, especially women. Although requiring low levels of inputs, FP contributes significantly to food security, poverty alleviation and ecologically sound management of natural resources. FP is also a source of employment for underprivileged groups and less-favored areas in LIFDCs. Developing schemes that aim to promote and improve the FP sub-sector in a way that is sustainable must not underestimate the roles and contributions of women. However, getting new information to the front line of production requires more gender-disaggregated data. This paper stresses the need to design, implement, monitor and evaluate FP development programs by taking into account socio-cultural, especially gender, issues.

Minimizing nutrient surpluses and improving efficiency of nutrient use are key challenges for all dairy farming production systems, driven by economic, environmental and increasing regulatory constraints. Our study examined the efficiency of N, P and K use on a commercial dairy farm through an integrated approach that evaluated the nutrient status of all aspects of the production system of the case-study farm, a 75 lactating Holstein cow dairy in Kings County, Nova Scotia, Canada. During the decade after 1988, the farm owner implemented a series of changes in production practices, including diversification of the crop rotation, implementation of a management intensive grazing (MIG) regime and adoption of a systematic approach to soil and nutrient management. Milk production, and associated farm exports of N, P and K, increased by 666 kg cow−1 between 1990 and 2000. Purchases of N-P-K fertilizers were eliminated in 1990 and feed nutrient imports were dramatically reduced. Feed costs per liter of milk declined from 14.3 cents (CDN) liter−1 in 1990–92 to 11.6 cents liter−1 in 1998–2000, even as feed prices increased regionally by 10–20% over the same period. Modeling of current whole farm mass N, P and K balance indicated that 25.0% of all N inputs are recovered inform products, milk and meat. Non-legume-derived field N input (67kg Nha−1 before losses) was close to optimum for the predominantly legume/grass-based forage cropping system. Model-determined annual farm nutrient surpluses (outputs-inputs) for P (9.0kgha−1 yr−1) and K (8.2 kg ha−1 yr−1) were significantly lower than those previously reported for regional confinement-based dairy farms, which were more reliant on corn production. However, data from 16 years of soil analysis (1985–2001) indicated an increase in soil-test P levels of approximately 2 mg kg−1 yr−1. Recent refinements in dairy animal dietary P levels have further reduced the farm P surplus (2.6 kg ha−1 in year 2001) and are shown as key to a strategy for reversal of the trend in soil-test P levels. In summary, the combined approach of whole-farm system nutrient management, crop diversification and MIG increased milk production and minimized costs while reducing farm nutrient inputs. The study demonstrates how an approach to dairy farm nutrient management which integrates livestock and crop nutrient requirements may reduce dairy farm nutrient loading while maintaining productivity.

Over 61% of farmers who sell agricultural products through farmers' markets are satisfied with the returns they generate. Producers who are 50 years of age or older and those who retail at least 70% of the dollar value of the products are more likely to be highly satisfied with their profit margin from farmers' markets. A strong positive relationship is documented between profit margin satisfaction and growers who offer organic produce for sale. Furthermore, the results suggest that producers with farmers' market businesses in the growing stage are more likely to be highly satisfied with profit margins.

This study reviews the literature on consumer preferences and willingness to pay for pork produced through alternative methods, such as natural and organic production, It finds evidence suggesting that many consumers are willing to pay relatively high premiums for natural and organic pork. Furthermore, research is found which suggests that such premiums can be expected to persist into the foreseeable future. This study also investigates the degree to which such premiums are transmitted to pork producers and finds anecdotal evidence suggesting that natural and organic pork producers receive modest premiums as well as more stable pricing overall. This paper then discusses the marketing efforts needed and impediments to supplying the natural and organic markets for pork. The overall perspective provided by this paper is that natural and organic production may be viable alternatives to more capital-intensive production for many small-scale producers.

The 1999 severe crop season drought in the northeastern US was followed by hurricane-driven torrential rains in September, offering a unique opportunity to observe how managed and natural systems respond to climate-related stress. The Rodale Institute Farming Systems Trial has been operating since 1981 and consists of three replicated cropping systems, one organic manure based (MNR), one organic legume based (LEG) and a conventional system (CNV). The MNR system consists of a 5-year maize–soybean–wheat–clover/hay rotation, the LEG of a 3-year maize–soybean–wheat–green manure, and the CNV of a 5-year maize-soybean rotation. Subsoil lysimeters allowed quantification of percolated water in each system. Average maize and soybean yields were similar in all three systems over the post-transition years (1985–1998). Five drought years occurred between 1984 and 1998 and in four of them the organic maize outyielded the CNV by significant margins. In 1999 all crop systems suffered severe yield depressions; however, there were substantial yield differences between systems. Organic maize yielded 38% and 137% relative to CNV in the LEG and MNR treatments, respectively, and 196% and 152% relative to CNV in the soybean plots. The primary mechanism of the higher yield of the MNR and LEG is proposed to be the higher water-holding capacity of the soils in those treatments, while the lower yield of the LEG maize was due to weed competition in that particular year and treatment. Soils in the organic plots captured more water and retained more of it in the crop root zone than in the CNV treatment. Water capture in the organic plots was approximately 100% higher than in CNV plots during September's torrential rains.

The traditional farming system (TFS) in the Ghouta has been an integral pan of the social life and has contributed to the food supply of Damascus for millennia. Very little is known about this traditional and sustainable system, considered by many as a hindrance to development. This study is an attempt to analyze the economic perfonnance of this system. The objective is to evaluate the economic performance of the TFS and its impact on system viability. Three farms, representing the three different agricultural strategies in this area, were selected for data-collection. Participant observation was used to derive estimates of labor, costs and revenues, which are not recorded by farmers. These three farms formed a base for continuous contact with other farmers in the Ghouta. The average values, after cross-checking with these estimates and other farmers, were used in the economic analysis at three levels: production, family and market level. The production system of the Ghouta is adaptable to economic forces of a major city as the high level of market orientation of the TFS stimulates diversity of farms. It is concluded that the diversified farms managed by farmers in this area provide a satisfactory income, which is in harmony both with the social values and with preserving the system, the overall objective of the farmers.

Wind erosion is a serious environmental problem in the inland Pacific Northwest, US. In addition to onfarm damage to soil and crop quality, it causes off-farm damage, including human respiratory illness, traffic accidents and diminished recreational values. Three key practices for effectively controlling wind erosion in eastern Washington are reduced tillage, continuous spring cropping and vegetative wind strips. Although these are effective in controlling wind erosion, their adoption by farmers in the region has been slow. Technology adoption theory has been classified into three paradigms: income, utility and innovation-adoption. This study on adoption of wind erosion control practices draws from all three paradigms. However, unlike most past research, this study distinguishes between single-practice adopters and multiple-practice adopters, and compares single-practice adopters with zero-practice adopters. Data were obtained from a random sample survey of 266 farmers in six semi-arid counties in a region of east-central Washington State prone to wind erosion. Statistical results revealed: (1) that adopters of multiple conservation practices contrast more sharply with non-adopters than do adopters of a single conservation practice; and (2) adopters of a single practice differ more from zero-practice adopters than they do from all other farmers (including adopters of other practices). More specifically, this study recognizes heterogeneity among ‘adopters’ in erosion control, and suggests that there may be some hierarchy among adopters in strength of innovation. It also supports earlier findings-by sociologists that early adopters have more financial resources or larger farms and that education may aid adoption. Adopters were more aware of an erosion control educational program. Multiple-practice adopters are a distinct identifiable group, who may play a key role as innovators who can influence neighbors to adopt effective conservation practices. These individuals also possess unique information on the comparative cost, yields and technical challenges of alternative conservation practices that could be used on farms with similar soil and climatic conditions. Knowledge of the attributes associated with innovative multiple-practice adopters may permit soil conservation policymakers and field staff to target educational programs more accurately during the early stages of technology dissemination. Conservation-practice dissemination strategies may benefit by including innovative farmers in leadership roles in the initial stage of conservation education programs.

Farmers' markets promote alternative agriculture by allowing farmers to meet the demand for specialized agricultural products and establish new businesses. Farmers sell at farmers' markets for social and personal, as well as economic, reasons. Successful farmers' marketing involves interactions with customers, but little is known about these interactions. This study aimed to determine what happens when a family shops at farmers' markets, specifically how parents and children interact in the market in relation to each other and to the farmers. Systematic observation was used to follow 22 families with young children. A coding sheet was used to categorize sensory, perfunctory, informational interactions, attempts to influence purchases and additional interactions. Results showed information was more likely to be exchanged between farmers and parents or parents and children. Children were more likely to be involved in sensory interactions. Farmers interact with families through perfunctory interactions or informational interactions, rather than encouraging them to buy specific items. Since some important societal benefits of farmers' markets can only be achieved if information is exchanged during interactions, market managers and outreach professionals should encourage and assist farmers with providing information to customers. Further research is needed to understand why farmers favor social over explicitly sales-focused interactions, which interactive strategies may be optimal to achieve the fullest economic and non-economic benefits for both farmers and customers, and what is the economic and non-economic impact of providing information in the farmers' market.

Cover crops have long been recognized as a beneficial component of many cropping systems; however, their use is still not commonplace. Usage may be increased by identifying more cost-effective and environment-friendly techniques for cover-crop management. This study was conducted to determine the effectiveness of using a mechanical roller-crimper as-an alternative method for killing cover crops. The study location was in east-central Alabama, using a split-split plot experimental design with four replications and 3 site-years during 1999–2000. Rye, wheat and black oat were evaluated in terms of ease of kill and optimum time of kill using a roller-crimper, two herbicides (paraquat and glyphosate) at their labeled rate, and two reduced chemical (half label rate) combinations of the same chemicals with the roller-crimper. Four Feekes' scale growth stages were used to determine optimum time of kill; 8.0 (flag leaf), 10.51 (anthesis), 10.54 (early milk) and 11.2 (soft dough). Plant growth stage was the main determining factor for effectiveness of the roller-crimper for killing the cover crops. At the flag leaf stage, the roller-crimper provided only 19% kill across all covers over the 3 site-years. After plants reached anthesis, the roller-crimper with half-rate herbicide combinations equaled the effectiveness of herbicides alone at their label rate, averaging 94% kill. By the soft dough growth stage, all kill methods were equally effective due to accelerating plant senescence (95% mean kill across kill methods). Use of the roller-crimper alone after anthesis can decrease costs by as much as $26.28 per ha, while providing a kill rate equivalent to that of herbicide treatment alone.

Agricultural landscapes are essential for preserving biodiversity, even though agricultural activities are the leading cause of habitat degradation worldwide. About half of the Earth's productive land area is farmed or grazed, whereas only about 6% of the total land area is protected for native species and ecosystems. The ecological services of healthy ecosystems are fundamental to agriculture, and these services depend upon a large number of species interacting with each other and with inorganic nutrient cycles. Likewise, the quality of ecosystems between reserves is critical to the persistence of species and ecological processes within reserves. Thus, conservation-oriented farming methods are critically important for both agriculture and biodiversity. Three examples illustrate agricultural practices that benefit the farmers, the local ecosystem and the landscape: (1) In Minnesota, rotational grazing, evaluated by the collaborative research of farmers and scientists, improved soil, pasture and stream quality, and boosted the confidence of the farmers in developing more sustainable grazing practices. (2) Predator-friendly ranching in Montana, in which nonlethal methods are used to protect livestock from depredation by native predators, benefited the ranchers with premium prices for wool and meat. The persistence of native predators, many of which have been on endangered species lists for years, benefited the regional ecosystem. (3) Shade-grown coffee in Latin America, in which coffee shrubs grow under an intact forest canopy, often looks and behaves ecologically like native forest and may house high levels of native biodiversity. This system benefited farmers, as long as they received a price premium for shade-grown coffee. The economic viability of these conservation-oriented practices depends upon farmers receiving price premiums for their products and by society rewarding fanners for their practices. A vision of ecological farming as the dominant form of agriculture is presented, with benefits at the scale of the farm, the landscape and society.

The development of production systems that provide the benefits of reduced tillage and also reduce or eliminate herbicide inputs presents a challenge to practitioners of sustainable agriculture. This research was conducted to evaluate management approaches for minimum-tillage corn production in a hairy vetch cover crop, specifically, mechanical versus herbicidal methods for pre-plant cover-crop kill and for post-emergence control of emerged weeds. Pre-plant treatments included 2,4-D [(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)acetic acid] plus residual herbicides, 2,4-D alone, flail mower, corn stalk chopper, light disk and heavy disk. The pre-plant herbicide treatments were followed by a post-emergence treatment of dicamba, whereas the pre-plant mechanical treatments were followed by post-emergence cultivation, as needed, for weed control. The mechanical treatments that kept residue on the soil surface (mower, stalk chopper and light disk) killed hairy vetch when it was flowering, but not when vegetative. The herbicide treatment with pre-plant 2,4-D alone, followed by dicamba post-emergence, controlled annual broadleaf weeds (the dominant species in these experiments) similarly to treatment with 2,4-D plus residual herbicides, suggesting that residual herbicides may be eliminated in cover-crop-based no-tillage systems. The pre-plant mechanical treatments followed by cultivation did not control annual broadleaf weeds as well as herbicide treatments, but did maintain final populations below threshold levels in two of four experiments. The stalk chopper and light disk left high levels of vetch residue on the soil surface, and reduced initial broadleaf weed populations compared with the heavy disk that incorporated residue. However, broadleaf weed populations were reduced with less efficiency by cultivation of unfilled soil following the stalk chopper or light disk (38–69%) than by cultivation of tilled soil following the heavy disk (87–95%). Thus, although maintaining surface cover-crop residue without tillage initially reduced weed emergence, it also reduced the efficiency of cultivation, leading to similar final weed populations in all mechanical-based, pre-plant treatments.

The expansion of organic farming has taken off in the European Union and particularly in Austria, where 9% of farmland is certified organic. The main reasons for this development are subsidies and cooperation with supermarket chains. In Austria, many organic farms are located in the mountainous areas, while lowlands with arable cropping have fewer organic farms than the national average. Exploring two regions as case studies, this paper investigates whether the organic farming movement can keep its promises of environmental safety, economic viability and social justice. There is a high level of environmental concern among those who practice organic farming, but local differences are large. It is the individual farmer who determines whether environmental issues beyond the official organic regulations are considered. The economic situation for organic farms is positive due to the financial support from the government and cooperation with supermarket chains, but processing and marketing operations are still lacking for organic products. Regarding social justice, organic farming enjoys a high esteem among consumers, but relations and cooperation between organic and conventional farm sectors is poor. We conclude that it is crucial for the organic movement to focus on qualitative issues rather than quantitative expansion for further sound development of organic farming in Austria.