Knowledge representation (KR) is an important area in artificial intelligence (AI) and is often related to specific domains. The representation of knowledge in domain-specific contexts makes it desirable to capture semantics as domain experts would. This motivates the development of semantics-preserving standards for KR within the given domain. In addition to the storage and analysis of information using such standards, the effect of globalization today necessitates the publishing of information on the Web. Thus, it is advisable to use formats that make the information easily publishable and accessible while developing KR standards. In this article, we propose such a standard called Quenching Markup Language (QuenchML). This follows the syntax of the eXtensible Markup Language and captures the semantics of the quenching domain within the heat treating of materials. We describe the development of QuenchML, a multidisciplinary effort spanning the realms of AI, database management, and materials science, considering various aspects such as ontology, data modeling, and domain-specific constraints. We also explain the usefulness of QuenchML in semantics-preserving information retrieval and in text mining guided by domain knowledge. Furthermore, we outline the significance of this work in software tools within the field of AI.

In human-centered design, user research drives design decisions by providing an understanding of end users. In practice, different people, teams, or even companies manage each step of the design process, making communication of user research results a critical activity. Based on an empirical study of current methods used by experts, this paper presents strategies for effectively communicating user research findings across organizational or corporate boundaries. To build researcher–client relationships, understand both user and client needs, and overcome institutional inertia, this paper proposes viewing user research clients as users of user research outcomes. This reframing of the crafting of communication across boundaries as a parallel internal human-centered design process we refer to as a double ethnography.

Design rationale (DR) explains why an artifact is designed the way it is. An explicit representation of DR is helpful to designers, allowing them to understand, improve, and reuse previous designs. The argumentation-based representation is the mainstream approach to DR representation. It has a semiformal graphical format to depict the structure of arguments for solving a design problem. This paper argues that because the design is not just a problem-solving process but also a cognitive activity that is continuously iterative and evolving, the conventional argumentation-based representation of DR has some inherent limitations. An improved, intent-driven representation model is proposed to capture and formalize the DR and its evolving history to support DR reuse. The model's knowledge structure, consisting of DR elements and their relationships, is detailed. A preliminary knowledge representation of the model based on Web Ontology Language is introduced. Furthermore, the context of DR is defined to document the complete DR and support effective traceability of design thinking. A graphical DR modeling system is developed, and an example is demonstrated to verify the system's application and the effectiveness of the proposed representation model. The paper provides an effective method to retain and manage a designer's implicit design knowledge, which has the potential to significantly improve the integrated management of product development knowledge.

Function is an ambiguous concept, whereas having explicit and precise concepts is critical for building a systematic science of engineering design. Based on Bunge's scientific ontology, this paper is devoted to developing an explicit and precise concept of function for design science. First, we attempt to clarify the concept of behavior, which is closely related to function and is also shown as an ambiguous concept in engineering. Second, the concept of action is imported from scientific ontology into design science. Third, a scientific ontology based concept of function is proposed, together with an ontology-based functional taxonomy. A case of a function definition of a civil aircraft type demonstrates that the proposed concept of function is more explicit and precise than previous ones, and it can lead to better functional design results.

Detailed design is often a time-consuming and experience-dependent engineering process, where various detailed design knowledge can be reused. This paper proposes a formal approach for modeling detailed design knowledge for effective reuse. An extended structure–behavior–function model is developed for representing the structural, behavioral, and functional information in various life cycle periods of a detailed design. Based on the extended structure–behavior–function model, an issue- and solution-based approach is then developed to model the detailed knowledge of a mechanical design. The proposed approach is implemented in a detailed design knowledge modeling system, with a fixture design knowledge modeling as a brief example.

Understanding product functions is a key aspect of the work undertaken by engineers involved in complex system design. The support offered to these engineers by existing modeling tools such as the function tree and the function structure is limited because they are not intuitive and do not scale well to deal with real-world engineering problems. A research collaboration between two universities and a major power system company in the aerospace domain has allowed the authors to further develop a method for function analysis known as function analysis diagram that was already in use by line engineers. The capability to generate and edit these diagrams was implemented in the Decision Rationale editor, a software tool for capturing design rationale. This article presents the intended benefits of the method and justifies them using an engineering case study. The results of the research have shown that the function analysis diagram method has a simple notation, permits the modeling of product functions together with structure, allows the generation of rich and accurate descriptions of product functionality, is useful to work with variant and adaptive design tasks, and can coexist with other functional modeling methods.

Communication is both the problem and the solution to misunderstanding. It is the human communicative ability to display understanding to resolve misunderstandings that plays an important part in the organization of the design inputs to a construction project. Ambiguity and uncertainty, as different forms of misunderstanding, are studied in this article, as they are manifest in the conversation at a design meeting. In this setting the coordination of both in situ design activities and the planning of design tasks takes place in real time, in conversation. Exhibited are several ways that design ambiguities and uncertainties can be seen in the interactional details of a multidisciplinary design team's conversation, to then report on how different design expertise featured in the raising of, and attempts at resolving, the misunderstandings that arose. In the course of this meeting, ambiguity and uncertainty were observed not as neat, discrete phenomena but were interwoven in the conversation. This characteristic poses difficulties in the disambiguation of the problem-solving response to each form of misunderstanding and further develops our understanding of design as it is communicated and conducted in social interaction. Finally, some implications from this study are put forward to inform the design of support for collaborative design.

This paper discusses the effects of direct and indirect communications on social learning and task coordination in design teams. The findings reported in this paper are based on a computational model that simulates the formation of transactive memory (TM) through social learning from direct and indirect communications. Direct communications are explicit information exchanged between team members whereas indirect communication may be opportunistic and coincidental, resulting in learning and information gained through observations of the actions of others. However, team structure mediates opportunities for communication. Three types of team structures are studied, which are differentiated on the basis of their constraints on and opportunities for direct and indirect communications across the team. The differences across the team structures are investigated through a series of simulations in which team member retention, cognitive busyness of team members, and task complexity are additional moderating variables, and task coordination and formation of TM are the dependent variables. Fewer communications to coordinate the same tasks are taken as the measure of efficient task coordination. Findings suggest that reduction in communication and learning opportunities are more detrimental to the task coordination in flat teams as compared to functional teams. Indirect communications contribute more to the formation of TM than to task coordination. Flat teams facilitate the formation of TM, whereas functional teams are more appropriate for efficient task coordination, indicating that the role of TM in mediating task coordination varies with team structure.

The authors have been involved in ontological modeling of function for over 15 years. As an instance of the revisionary approach discussed in Vermaas's position paper, we have proposed an ontological definition of function and a modeling framework based on it, which has been deployed in industry. In addition, as an instance of the overarching approach, we have proposed a reference ontology of function that explains some kinds, definitions, and practical expressions of functions. In this paper, we explain our methodology in an overarching approach based on perspectives for capturing functions. When one captures a function of an artifact, one focuses on a specific aspect of the artifact from a specific perspective. In this paper, we conceptualize such perspectives behind the reference ontology. In addition, based on our experiences in deployment in an industrial setting, we report some solutions, such as ontological modeling guidelines, for overcoming some of the difficulties faced in the practical functional modeling approach described in Eckert's position paper. Our findings suggest that such solutions will help engineers to describe consistent functional models compliant with a single definition of function.

Functions are important in designing. However, several issues hinder progress with the understanding and usage of functions: lack of a clear and overarching definition of function, lack of overall justifications for the inevitability of the multiple views of function, and scarcity of systematic attempts to relate these views with one another. To help resolve these, the objectives of this research are to propose a common definition of function that underlies the multiple views in literature and to identify and validate the views of function that are logically justified to be present in designing. Function is defined as a change intended by designers between two scenarios: before and after the introduction of the design. A framework is proposed that comprises the above definition of function and an empirically validated model of designing, extended generate, evaluate, modify, and select of state-change, and an action, part, phenomenon, input, organ, and effect model of causality (Known as GEMS of SAPPhIRE), comprising the views of activity, outcome, requirement–solution–information, and system–environment. The framework is used to identify the logically possible views of function in the context of designing and is validated by comparing these with the views of function in the literature. Describing the different views of function using the proposed framework should enable comparisons and determine relationships among the various views, leading to better understanding and usage of functions in designing.

Authors across disciplines propose functional modeling as part of systematic design approaches, in order to support and guide designers during conceptual design. The presented research aims at contributing to a better understanding of the diverse functional modeling approaches proposed across disciplines. The article presents a literature review of 41 modeling approaches from a variety of disciplines. The analysis focuses on what is addressed by functional modeling at which point in the proposed conceptual design process (i.e., in which sequence). The gained insights lead to the identification of specific needs and opportunities, which could support the development of an integrated functional modeling approach. The findings suggest that there is no such shared sequence for functional modeling across disciplines. However, a shared functional modeling perspective has been identified across all reviewed disciplines, which could serve as a common basis for the development of an integrated functional modeling approach.