Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jn8rn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-31T15:06:42.704Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
Series:   Elements in Applied Evolutionary Science

Improving Breastfeeding Rates

Evolutionary Anthropological Insights for Public Health

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 February 2023

Emily H. Emmott
Emily H. Emmott
Affiliation:
University College London

Summary

Breastfeeding is championed as an effective way to improve global health, associated with improved health outcomes for children and mothers. Various public health strategies to promote breastfeeding have been developed and implemented for over four decades, yet progress has stagnated, and exclusive breastfeeding rates remain low globally. From an evolutionary anthropological perspective, low breastfeeding rates seem like an 'evolutionary puzzle'; breastfeeding is a behaviour which confers survival and fitness advantage to children and mothers, yet so many mothers do not breastfeed exclusively or at all. Is this a globally maladaptive behaviour? Framing breastfeeding as a maternal investment behaviour, an evolutionary perspective directs us to consider the fitness costs of breastfeeding, together with the role of social learning and cultural norms. Indeed, an evolutionary anthropological perspective provides insights to why some breastfeeding-promotion strategies may have been ineffective, while pointing to potentially promising policies and practices which have been overlooked
Get access

Keywords

breastfeedingevolutionary anthropologypublic healthinfant feedingmothering
Type
Element
Information
Series: Elements in Applied Evolutionary Science
Online ISBN: 9781009217491
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication: 23 February 2023

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abbass-Dick, J., Brown, H. K., Jackson, K. T., Rempel, L., & Dennis, C.-L. (2019). Perinatal breastfeeding interventions including fathers/partners: A systematic review of the literature. Midwifery, 75, 41–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.midw.2019.04.001.Google Scholar
Ahluwalia, S. C., Edelen, M. O., Qureshi, N., & Etchegaray, J. M. (2021). Trust in experts, not trust in national leadership, leads to greater uptake of recommended actions during the COVID-19 pandemic. Risk, Hazards & Crisis in Public Policy, 12(3), 283–302. https://doi.org/10.1002/rhc3.12219Google Scholar
AlDabal, L., & BaHammam, A. S. (2011). Metabolic, endocrine, and immune consequences of sleep deprivation. The Open Respiratory Medicine Journal, 5, 31. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874306401105010031.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Almgren, M. (2018). Benefits of skin-to-skin contact during the neonatal period: Governed by epigenetic mechanisms? Genes & Diseases, 5(1), 24–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gendis.2018.01.004Google Scholar
Almroth, S., Mohale, M., & Latham, M. (2000). Unnecessary water supplementation for babies: Grandmothers blame clinics. Acta Paediatrica, 89(12), 1408–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/080352500456552.Google Scholar
Andreas, N. J., Kampmann, B., & Mehring Le-Doare, K. (2015). Human breast milk: A review on its composition and bioactivity. Special Issue: Neonatal Update 2015, 91(11), 629–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2015.08.013.Google Scholar
Anttila-Hughes, J. K., Fernald, L. C., Gertler, P. J., Krause, P., & Wydick, B. (2018). Mortality from Nestlé’s marketing of infant formula in low and middle-income countries. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series, 24452. https://doi.org/10.3386/w24452.Google Scholar
Atkins, P. J. (2003). Mother’s milk and infant death in Britain, circa 1900-1940. Anthropology of Food, 2. https://doi.org/10.4000/aof.310.Google Scholar
Ball, H. L. (2017). Evolution-informed maternal–infant health. Nature Ecology & Evolution, 1(3), 73. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-017-0073.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ballard, O., & Morrow, A. L. (2013). Human milk composition: Nutrients and bioactive factors. Breastfeeding Updates for the Pediatrician, 60(1), 49–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2012.10.002.Google ScholarPubMed
Batan, M., Li, R., & Scanlon, K. (2013). Association of child care providers breastfeeding support with breastfeeding duration at 6 months. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 17(4), 708–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-012-1050-7.Google Scholar
Becker, G. E., Zambrano, P., Ching, C. et al. (2022). Global evidence of persistent violations of the international code of marketing of breast-milk substitutes: A systematic scoping review. Maternal & Child Nutrition, 18(S3), e13335. https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.13335.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berry, N. J., & Gribble, K. D. (2008). Breast is no longer best: Promoting normal infant feeding. Maternal & Child Nutrition, 4(1), 74–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-8709.2007.00100.x.Google Scholar
Berry, N. J., Jones, S. C., & Iverson, D. (2012). Circumventing the WHO code? An observational study. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 97(4), 320. https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.2010.202051.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Binns, C., Lee, M., & Low, W. Y. (2016). The long-term public health benefits of breastfeeding. Asia Pacific Journal of Public Health, 28(1), 7–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/1010539515624964.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Borgerhoff Mulder, M., & Schacht, R. (2012). Human behavioural ecology. In eLS. John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470015902.a0003671.pub2.Google Scholar
Boyer, K. (2012). Affect, corporeality and the limits of belonging: Breastfeeding in public in the contemporary UK. Health & Place, 18(3), 552–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2012.01.010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
BPAS (n.d.). Trans, Non-binary and Intersex People. British Pregnancy Advisory Service. Retrieved November 11, 2020, from www.bpas.org/abortion-care/considering-abortion/trans-non-binary-and-intersex-people/.Google Scholar
Brady, J. P. (2012). Marketing breast milk substitutes: Problems and perils throughout the world. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 97(6), 529. https://doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2011-301299.Google Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1992). Ecological systems theory. Jessica Kingsley.Google Scholar
Brown, A. (2016). What do women really want? Lessons for breastfeeding promotion and education. Breastfeeding Medicine, 11(3), 102–10. https://doi.org/10.1089/bfm.2015.0175.Google Scholar
Brown, A., Jones, S., & Evans, E. (2020). Marketing of infant milk in the UK: what do parents see and believe. First Steps Nutrition Trust. https://static1.squarespace.com/static/59f75004f09ca48694070f3b/t/6053645514d0f3072adec94e/1616077909798/Marketing_of_infant_milk_in_the_UK-what_do_parents_see_and_believe_finala.pdf.Google Scholar
Budds, K. (2021). Validating social support and prioritizing maternal wellbeing: Beyond intensive mothering and maternal responsibility. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 376(1827), 20200029. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2020.0029.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burns, E., Schmied, V., Sheehan, A., & Fenwick, J. (2010). A meta-ethnographic synthesis of women’s experience of breastfeeding. Maternal & Child Nutrition, 6(3), 201–19. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-8709.2009.00209.x.Google Scholar
Butte, N. F., & King, J. C. (2005). Energy requirements during pregnancy and lactation. Public Health Nutrition, 8(7a),1010–27. https://doi.org/10.1079/PHN2005793.Google Scholar
Cai, X., Wardlaw, T., & Brown, D. W. (2012). Global trends in exclusive breastfeeding. International Breastfeeding Journal, 7(1), 12. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4358-7-12.Google Scholar
Chambers, A., Myers, S., Emmott, E. H., & Page, A. E. (2022). Emotional and informational social support from health visitors and breastfeeding outcomes in the UK. https://doi.org/10.31219/osf.io/37cke.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chang, Y.-S., Li, K. M. C., Li, K. Y. C. et al. (2021). Relatively speaking? Partners’ and family members’ views and experiences of supporting breastfeeding: A systematic review of qualitative evidence. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 376(1827), 20200033. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2020.0033.Google Scholar
Chen, Y.-F., Armoiry, X., Higenbottam, C. et al. (2019). Magnitude and modifiers of the weekend effect in hospital admissions: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open, 9(6), e025764. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2018-025764.Google Scholar
Chowdhury, R., Sinha, B., Sankar, M. J. et al. (2015). Breastfeeding and maternal health outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Paediatrica, 104(S467), 96–113. https://doi.org/10.1111/apa.13102.Google Scholar
Cleveland, L., Hill, C. M., Pulse, W. S. et al. (2017). Systematic review of skin-to-skin care for full-term, healthy newborns. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic & Neonatal Nursing, 46(6), 857–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jogn.2017.08.005.Google Scholar
Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. (2002). Breast cancer and breastfeeding: Collaborative reanalysis of individual data from 47 epidemiological studies in 30 countries, including 50 302 women with breast cancer and 96 973 women without the disease. The Lancet, 360(9328), 187–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)09454-0.Google Scholar
Corriveau, K., & Harris, P. L. (2009). Choosing your informant: Weighing familiarity and recent accuracy. Developmental Science, 12(3), 426–37. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00792.x.Google Scholar
Creanza, N., Kolodny, O., & Feldman, M. W. (2017). Cultural evolutionary theory: How culture evolves and why it matters. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(30), 7782–9. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1620732114.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Criado-Perez, C. (2019). Invisible women: Exposing data bias in a world designed for men. Chatto & Windus.Google Scholar
Davidson, E. L., & Ollerton, R. L. (2020). Partner behaviours improving breastfeeding outcomes: An integrative review. Women and Birth, 33(1), e15–e23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wombi.2019.05.010.Google Scholar
Dharel, D., Dhungana, R., Basnet, S. et al. (2020). Breastfeeding practices within the first six months of age in mid-western and eastern regions of Nepal: A health facility-based cross-sectional study. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 20(1), 59. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-020-2754-0.Google Scholar
Dias, C. C., & Figueiredo, B. (2015). Breastfeeding and depression: A systematic review of the literature. Journal of Affective Disorders, 171, 142–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2014.09.022.Google Scholar
Dinour, L. M., & Szaro, J. M. (2017). Employer-based programs to support breastfeeding among working mothers: A systematic review. Breastfeeding Medicine, 12(3), 131–41. https://doi.org/10.1089/bfm.2016.0182.Google Scholar
Doan, T., Gay, C. L., Kennedy, H. P., Newman, J., & Lee, K. A. (2014). Nighttime breastfeeding behavior is associated with more nocturnal sleep among first-time mothers at one month postpartum. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine, 10(3), 313–9. https://doi.org/10.5664/jcsm.3538.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duijts, L., Ramadhani, M. K., & Moll, H. A. (2009). Breastfeeding protects against infectious diseases during infancy in industrialized countries: A systematic review. Maternal & Child Nutrition, 5(3), 199–210. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-8709.2008.00176.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dunne, J., Rebay-Salisbury, K., Salisbury, R. B. et al. (2019). Milk of ruminants in ceramic baby bottles from prehistoric child graves. Nature, 574(7777), 246–8. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1572-x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dusenbery, M. (2018). Doing harm: The truth about how bad medicine and lazy science leave women dismissed, misdiagnosed, and sick (1st ed.). HarperOne, an imprint of HarperCollins.Google Scholar
Dykes, F., Moran, V. H., Burt, S., & Edwards, J. (2003). Adolescent mothers and breastfeeding: Experiences and support needs – An exploratory study. Journal of Human Lactation, 19(4), 391–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/0890334403257562.Google Scholar
Emmott, E. H., Gilliland, A., Narasimhan, A. L., & Myers, S. (2022). Coping with ‘lockdown Babies’: Understanding postpartum maternal experience in London, UK. OSF Preprints. https://doi.org/10.31219/osf.io/r7enw.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Emmott, E. H., & Mace, R. (2015). Practical support from fathers and grandmothers is associated with lower levels of breastfeeding in the UK millennium cohort study. PLOS ONE, 10(7), e0133547. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0133547.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Emmott, E. H., Myers, S., & Page, A. E. (2021). Who cares for women with children? Crossing the bridge between disciplines. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 376(1827), 20200019. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2020.0019.Google Scholar
Emmott, E. H., & Page, A. E. (2019). Alloparenting. In Shackelford, T. K. & Weekes-Shackelford, V. A. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Psychological Science (pp. 1–14). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16999-6_2253-1.Google Scholar
Emmott, E. H., Page, A. E., & Myers, S. (2020a). Typologies of postnatal support and breastfeeding at two months in the UK. Social Science & Medicine, 246, 112791. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.112791.Google Scholar
Emmott, E. H., Page, A. E., & Myers, S. (2020b). Typologies of postnatal support and breastfeeding at two months in the UK: Response to comments by Harpur & Haddon. Social Science & Medicine, 252, 112944. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.112944.Google Scholar
Fallon, V. M., Harrold, J. A., & Chisholm, A. (2019). The impact of the UK baby friendly initiative on maternal and infant health outcomes: A mixed‐methods systematic review. Maternal & Child Nutrition, 15(3), e12778. https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12778.Google Scholar
Feldman, R., Rosenthal, Z., & Eidelman, A. I. (2014). Maternal-preterm skin-to-skin contact enhances child physiologic organization and cognitive control across the first 10 years of life. Temperament: Genetic and Environmental Factors, 75(1), 56–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.08.012.Google Scholar
Ferris, A. M., Dotts, M. A., Clark, R. M., Ezrin, M., & Jensen, R. G. (1988). Macronutrients in human milk at 2, 12, and 16 weeks postpartum1. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 88(6), 694–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0002-8223(21)02037-X.Google Scholar
Fewtrell, M. S., Mohd Shukri, N. H., & Wells, J. C. K. (2020). ‘Optimising’ breastfeeding: What can we learn from evolutionary, comparative and anthropological aspects of lactation? BMC Medicine, 18(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-019-1473-8.Google Scholar
Figueiredo, B., Dias, C. C., Pinto, T. M., & Field, T. (2017). Exclusive breastfeeding at three months and infant sleep-wake behaviors at two weeks, three and six months. Infant Behavior and Development, 49, 62–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2017.06.006.Google Scholar
Finkle, C. L. (1993). Nestle, infant formula, and excuses: The regulation of commercial advertising in developing nations. Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business., 14, 602.Google Scholar
Fitzsimons, E., & Vera-Hernández, M. (2022). Breastfeeding and child development. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 14(3), 329–66. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20180385.Google Scholar
Fomon, S. J. (1987). Reflections on infant feeding in the 1970s and 1980s. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 46(1), 171–82. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/46.1.171.Google Scholar
Fomon, S. J. (2001). Infant feeding in the 20th century: Formula and beikost. The Journal of Nutrition, 131(2), 409S-20S. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/131.2.409S.Google Scholar
Franz, M., & Matthews, L. J. (2010). Social enhancement can create adaptive, arbitrary and maladaptive cultural traditions. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 277(1698), 3363–72. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2010.0705.Google Scholar
Fu, X., Lovell, A. L., Braakhuis, A. J., Mithen, R. F., & Wall, C. R. (2021). Type of milk feeding and introduction to complementary foods in relation to infant sleep: A systematic review. Nutrients, 13(11). https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13114105.Google Scholar
Galipeau, R., Baillot, A., Trottier, A., & Lemire, L. (2018). Effectiveness of interventions on breastfeeding self-efficacy and perceived insufficient milk supply: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Maternal & Child Nutrition, 14(3), e12607. https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12607.Google Scholar
Gatti, L. (2008). Maternal perceptions of insufficient milk supply in breastfeeding. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 40(4), 355–63. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1547-5069.2008.00234.x.Google Scholar
Gettler, L. T., Samson, D. R., Kilius, E. et al. (2022). Links between household and family social dynamics with sleep profiles among BaYaka foragers of the Congo Basin. Social Science & Medicine, 311, 115345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.115345.Google Scholar
Gharaei, T., Amiri-Farahani, L., Haghani, S., & Hasanpoor-Azghady, S. B. (2020). The effect of breastfeeding education with grandmothers’ attendance on breastfeeding self-efficacy and infant feeding pattern in Iranian primiparous women: A quasi-experimental pilot study. International Breastfeeding Journal, 15(1), 84. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13006-020-00325-5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Golden, T. L., & Wendel, M. L. (2020). Public health’s next step in advancing equity: Re-evaluating epistemological assumptions to move social determinants from theory to practice. Frontiers in Public Health, 8. www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2020.00131.Google Scholar
Gribble, K. D., Bewley, S., Bartick, M. C. et al. (2022). Effective communication about pregnancy, birth, lactation, breastfeeding and newborn care: The importance of sexed language. Frontiers in Global Women’s Health, 3. www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fgwh.2022.818856.Google Scholar
Gupta, A., Dadhich, J. P., & Suri, S. (2013). How can global rates of exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months be enhanced? Infant, Child, & Adolescent Nutrition, 5(3), 133–40. https://doi.org/10.1177/1941406413480389.Google Scholar
Halcrow, S. E., King, C. L., Millard, A. R. et al. (2017). Out of the mouth of babes and sucklings: Breastfeeding and weaning in the past. In Tomori, C., Palmquist, A. E. L., Quinn, E. A. (Eds.), Breastfeeding: New Anthropological Approaches (pp.155–69). RoutledgeGoogle Scholar
Hall, D. M. B., & Renfrew, M. J. (2005). Tongue tie. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 90(12), 1211. https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.2005.077065.Google Scholar
Hawkes, K., O’Connell, J. F., & Blurton Jones, N. G. (1997). Hadza women’s time allocation, offspring provisioning, and the evolution of long postmenopausal life spans. Current Anthropology, 38(4), 551–77. JSTOR. https://doi.org/10.1086/204646.Google Scholar
Healy, A. (2009). How effectively do people learn from a variety of different opinions? Experimental Economics, 12(4), 386–416. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10683-009-9220-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heinig, M. J., Follett, J. R., Ishii, K. D. et al. (2006). Barriers to compliance with infant-feeding recommendations among low-income women. Journal of Human Lactation, 22(1), 27–38. https://doi.org/10.1177/0890334405284333.Google Scholar
Henderson, L., Kitzinger, J., & Green, J. (2000). Representing infant feeding: Content analysis of British media portrayals of bottle feeding and breast feeding. BMJ, 321(7270), 1196. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.321.7270.1196.Google Scholar
Henrich, J., & Broesch, J. (2011). On the nature of cultural transmission networks: Evidence from Fijian villages for adaptive learning biases. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 366(1567), 1139–48. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0323.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henrich, J., & Gil-White, F. J. (2001). The evolution of prestige: Freely conferred deference as a mechanism for enhancing the benefits of cultural transmission. Evolution and Human Behavior, 22(3), 165–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1090-5138(00)00071-4.Google Scholar
Hinde, K., & German, J. B. (2012). Food in an evolutionary context: Insights from mother’s milk. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 92(11), 2219–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.5720.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoddinott, P., Chalmers, M., & Pill, R. (2006). One-to-one or group-based peer support for breastfeeding? Women’s perceptions of a breastfeeding peer coaching intervention. Birth, 33(2), 139–46. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0730-7659.2006.00092.x.Google Scholar
Hoddinott, P., & Pill, R. (1999). Nobody actually tells you: A study of infant feeding. British Journal of Midwifery, 7(9), 558–65. https://doi.org/10.12968/bjom.1999.7.9.8264.Google Scholar
Hoddinott, P., Seyara, R., & Marais, D. (2011). Global evidence synthesis and UK idiosyncrasy: Why have recent UK trials had no significant effects on breastfeeding rates? Maternal & Child Nutrition, 7(3), 221–7. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-8709.2011.00336.x.Google Scholar
Horta, B. L., Loret de Mola, C., & Victora, C. G. (2015). Breastfeeding and intelligence: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Paediatrica, 104(S467), 14–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/apa.13139.Google Scholar
Horwood, C., Surie, A., Haskins, L. et al. (2020). Attitudes and perceptions about breastfeeding among female and male informal workers in India and South Africa. BMC Public Health, 20(1), 875. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-09013-9.Google Scholar
Hughes, O., Mohamad, M. M., Doyle, P., & Burke, G. (2018). The significance of breastfeeding on sleep patterns during the first 48 hours postpartum for first time mothers. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 38(3), 316–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443615.2017.1353594.Google Scholar
Hurtado, A. M., Hill, K., Hurtado, I., & Kaplan, H. (1992). Trade-Offs between female food acquisition and child care among hiwi and ache foragers. Human Nature, 3(3), 185–216. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02692239.Google Scholar
Jamison, A. M., Quinn, S. C., & Freimuth, V. S. (2019). ‘You don’t trust a government vaccine’: Narratives of institutional trust and influenza vaccination among African American and white adults. Social Science & Medicine, 221, 87–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.12.020.Google Scholar
Jelliffe, D. B., & Jelliffe, E. P. (1977). ‘Breast is best’: Modern meanings. New England Journal of Medicine, 297(17), 912–5.Google Scholar
Jolly, K., Ingram, L., Khan, K. S. et al. (2012). Systematic review of peer support for breastfeeding continuation: Metaregression analysis of the effect of setting, intensity, and timing. BMJ, 344, d8287. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.d8287.Google Scholar
Joseph, S. C. (1981). The anatomy of the infant formula controversy. American Journal of Diseases of Children, 135(10), 889–92.Google Scholar
Kikuchi, S., Nishihara, K., Horiuchi, S., & Eto, H. (2020). The influence of feeding method on a mother’s circadian rhythm and on the development of her infant’s circadian rest-activity rhythm. Early Human Development, 145, 105046. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2020.105046.Google Scholar
Kramer, M. S., Chalmers, B., Hodnett, E. D. et al. (2001). Promotion of breastfeeding intervention trial (PROBIT) A randomized trial in the republic of belarus. JAMA, 285(4), 413–20. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.285.4.413.Google Scholar
Larsen, J. S., Hall, E. O. C., & Aagaard, H. (2008). Shattered expectations: When mothers’ confidence in breastfeeding is undermined – a metasynthesis. Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 22(4), 653–61. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6712.2007.00572.x.Google Scholar
Laurent, C. (2003). Baby milk company fined for advertising direct to consumers. BMJ, 327(7410), 307. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.327.7410.307.Google Scholar
Lefèvre, C. M., Sharp, J. A., & Nicholas, K. R. (2010). Evolution of lactation: Ancient origin and extreme adaptations of the lactation system. Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics, 11(1), 219–38. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-genom-082509-141806.Google Scholar
Legesse, M., Demena, M., Mesfin, F., & Haile, D. (2015). Factors associated with colostrum avoidance among mothers of children aged less than 24 months in Raya Kobo district, North-eastern Ethiopia: Community-based cross-sectional study. Journal of Tropical Pediatrics, 61(5), 357–63. https://doi.org/10.1093/tropej/fmv039.Google Scholar
Lonsdorf, E. V., Stanton, M. A., Pusey, A. E., & Murray, C. M. (2020). Sources of variation in weaned age among wild chimpanzees in Gombe National Park, Tanzania. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 171(3), 419–29. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23986.Google Scholar
Lowe, P. (2016). Reproductive health and maternal sacrifice. Springer.Google Scholar
Lutter, C. K., & Morrow, A. L. (2013). Protection, promotion, and support and global trends in breastfeeding. Advances in Nutrition, 4(2), 213–9. https://doi.org/10.3945/an.112.003111.Google Scholar
Marmot, M. (2005). Social determinants of health inequalities. The Lancet, 365(9464), 1099–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)71146-6.Google Scholar
Marmot, M., & Allen, J. J. (2014). Social determinants of health equity. American Journal of Public Health, 104(S4), S517–S519. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2014.302200.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martin, M. (2017). Mixed-feeding in humans: Evolution and current implications. In Breastfeeding (pp. 140–54). Routledge.Google Scholar
Martucci, J., & Barnhill, A. (2018). Examining the use of ‘natural’ in breastfeeding promotion: Ethical and practical concerns. Journal of Medical Ethics, 44(9), 615. https://doi.org/10.1136/medethics-2017-104455.Google Scholar
Matanda, D. J., Mittelmark, M. B., & Kigaru, D. M. D. (2014). Breast-, complementary and bottle-feeding practices in Kenya: Stagnant trends were experienced from 1998 to 2009. Nutrition Research, 34(6), 507–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nutres.2014.05.004.Google Scholar
Action, Maternity. (2022, March). Breastfeeding while out and about. https://maternityaction.org.uk/advice/breastfeeding-in-public-places/.Google Scholar
McAndrew, F., Thompson, J., Fellows, L. et al. (2012). Infant feeding survey 2010. Leeds: Health and Social Care Information Centre, 2(1).Google Scholar
McFadden, A., Gavine, A., Renfrew, M. et al. (2017). Support for healthy breastfeeding mothers with healthy term babies. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD001141.pub5Google Scholar
McGuire, E. (2019). Insufficient glandular tissue: A case report. Breastfeeding Review, 27(3), 53–9. https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/ielapa.869289712459730.Google Scholar
McLeish, J., Harvey, M., Redshaw, M., & Alderdice, F. (2021). A qualitative study of first time mothers’ experiences of postnatal social support from health professionals in England. Women and Birth, 34(5), e451–e460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wombi.2020.10.012.Google Scholar
McLeroy, K. R., Bibeau, D., Steckler, A., & Glanz, K. (1988). An ecological perspective on health promotion programs. Health Education Quarterly, 15(4), 351–77. https://doi.org/10.1177/109019818801500401.Google Scholar
Michaelsen, K., Skafte, L., Badsberg, J., & Jørgensen, M. (1990). Variation in macronutrients in human bank milk: Influencing factors and implications for human milk banking. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, 11(2), 229–39. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005176-199008000-00013.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morgan, T., & Laland, K. (2012). The biological bases of conformity. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 6. www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnins.2012.00087.Google Scholar
Morris, C., Zaraté de la Fuente, G. A., Williams, C. E. T., & Hirst, C. (2016). UK views toward breastfeeding in public: An analysis of the public’s response to the claridge’s incident. Journal of Human Lactation, 32(3), 472–80. https://doi.org/10.1177/0890334416648934.Google Scholar
Morrison, A. H., Gentry, R., & Anderson, J. (2019). Mothers’ reasons for early breastfeeding cessation. MCN: The American Journal of Maternal/Child Nursing, 44(6). https://journals.lww.com/mcnjournal/Fulltext/2019/11000/Mothers__Reasons_for_Early_Breastfeeding_Cessation.4.aspx.Google Scholar
Myers, S., Page, A. E., & Emmott, E. H. (2021). The differential role of practical and emotional support in infant feeding experience in the UK. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 376(1827), 20200034. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2020.0034.Google Scholar
Navarro-Rosenblatt, D., & Garmendia, M.-L. (2018). Maternity leave and its impact on breastfeeding: A review of the literature. Breastfeeding Medicine, 13(9), 589–97. https://doi.org/10.1089/bfm.2018.0132.Google Scholar
Negrey, J. D., Emery Thompson, M., Dunn, C. D. et al. (2022). Female reproduction and viral infection in a long-lived mammal. Journal of Animal Ecology. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2656.13799.Google Scholar
Neifert, M. R. (2001). Prevention of breastfeeding tragedies. Pediatric Clinics, 48(2), 273–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0031-3955(08)70026-9.Google Scholar
Nguyen, T. T., Alayón, S., Jimerson, A. et al. (2017). The association of a large-scale television campaign with exclusive breastfeeding prevalence in vietnam. American Journal of Public Health, 107(2), 312–8. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2016.303561.Google Scholar
Nguyen, P. H., Keithly, S. C., Nguyen, N. T. et al. (2013). Prelacteal feeding practices in Vietnam: Challenges and associated factors. BMC Public Health, 13(1), 932. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-932.Google Scholar
Noonan, M. (2011). Breastfeeding: Is my baby getting enough milk? British Journal of Midwifery, 19(2), 82–9. https://doi.org/10.12968/bjom.2011.19.2.82.Google Scholar
Norholt, H. (2020). Revisiting the roots of attachment: A review of the biological and psychological effects of maternal skin-to-skin contact and carrying of full-term infants. Infant Behavior and Development, 60, 101441. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2020.101441.Google Scholar
Trust, Nuffield. (31 March 2022). What proportion of mothers in England start and continue to breastfeed? www.nuffieldtrust.org.uk/chart/what-proportion-of-mothers-in-england-start-and-continue-to-breastfeed-4.Google Scholar
Office for Health Improvement and Disparities. (2021). Breastfeeding at 6 to 8 weeks after birth: Annual data 2020 to 2021. www.gov.uk/government/statistics/breastfeeding-at-6-to-8-weeks-after-birth-annual-data-2020-to-2021.Google Scholar
Ogbo, F. A., Akombi, B. J., Ahmed, K. Y. et al. (2020). Breastfeeding in the community – How can partners/fathers help? A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17020413CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Page, A. E., Emmott, E. H., & Myers, S. (2022). Testing the buffering hypothesis: Breastfeeding problems, cessation, and social support in the UK. American Journal of Human Biology, 34(2), e23621. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.23621.Google Scholar
Palmer, G. (2009). The politics of breastfeeding: When breasts are bad for business (3rd updated and rev. ed.). Pinter & Martin.Google Scholar
Parry, K., Taylor, E., Hall-Dardess, P., Walker, M., & Labbok, M. (2013). Understanding Women’s Interpretations of Infant Formula Advertising. Birth, 40(2), 115–24. https://doi.org/10.1111/birt.12044.Google Scholar
Pereira-Kotze, C., Doherty, T., & Swart, E. C. (2020). Use of social media platforms by manufacturers to market breast-milk substitutes in South Africa. BMJ Global Health, 5(12), e003574. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2020-003574.Google Scholar
Pérez-Escamilla, R., Martinez, J. L., & Segura-Pérez, S. (2016). Impact of the Baby-friendly Hospital Initiative on breastfeeding and child health outcomes: A systematic review. Maternal & Child Nutrition, 12(3), 402–17. https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12294.Google Scholar
Picard, C., Fioramonti, J., Francois, A. et al. (2005). Review article: Bifidobacteria as probiotic agents – physiological effects and clinical benefits. Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 22(6), 495–512. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2036.2005.02615.x.Google Scholar
Public Health England. (2021). Early years high impact area 3: Supporting breastfeeding. GOV.UK. www.gov.uk/government/publications/commissioning-of-public-health-services-for-children/early-years-high-impact-area-3-supporting-breastfeeding.Google Scholar
Quigley, K. M., Moore, G. A., Propper, C. B., Goldman, B. D., & Cox, M. J. (2017). Vagal regulation in breastfeeding infants and their mothers. Child Development, 88(3), 919–33. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12641.Google Scholar
Quigley, M. A., Kelly, Y. J., & Sacker, A. (2007). Breastfeeding and hospitalization for diarrheal and respiratory infection in the United Kingdom millennium cohort study. Pediatrics, 119(4), e837–e842. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2006-2256.Google Scholar
Quinlan, R. J., & Quinlan, M. B. (2008). Human lactation, pair-bonds, and alloparents. Human Nature, 19(1), 87–102. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12110-007-9026-9.Google Scholar
Raju, T. N. K. (2011). Breastfeeding is a dynamic biological process –not simply a meal at the breast. Breastfeeding Medicine, 6(5), 257–9. https://doi.org/10.1089/bfm.2011.0081.Google Scholar
Ramani, S., Shaikh, N., Das, S. et al. (2019). ‘Everybody breastfeeds if they have milk’: Factors that shape exclusive breastfeeding practices in informal settlements of Mumbai, India. International Breastfeeding Journal, 14(1), 10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13006-019-0204-2.Google Scholar
Rempel, L. A., Rempel, J. K., & Moore, K. C. J. (2017). Relationships between types of father breastfeeding support and breastfeeding outcomes. Maternal & Child Nutrition, 13(3), e12337. https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12337.Google Scholar
Rendell, L., Fogarty, L., Hoppitt, W. J. E. et al. (2011). Cognitive culture: Theoretical and empirical insights into social learning strategies. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(2), 68–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2010.12.002.Google Scholar
Renfrew, M. J., Pokhrel, S., Quigley, M. et al. (2012). Preventing disease and saving resources: The potential contribution of increasing breastfeeding rates in the UK. UNICEF UK. www.unicef.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2012/11/Preventing_disease_saving_resources.pdf.Google Scholar
Roberts, T. J., Carnahan, E., & Gakidou, E. (2013). Can breastfeeding promote child health equity? A comprehensive analysis of breastfeeding patterns across the developing world and what we can learn from them. BMC Medicine, 11(1), 254. https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-11-254.Google Scholar
Robinson, K. H. (2013). Innocence, knowledge and the construction of childhood: The contradictory nature of sexuality and censorship in children’s contemporary lives. Routledge.Google Scholar
Rudzik, A. E. F., & Ball, H. L. (2021). Biologically normal sleep in the mother-infant dyad. American Journal of Human Biology, 33(5), e23589. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.23589.Google Scholar
Rudzik, A. E. F., Robinson-Smith, L., & Ball, H. L. (2018). Discrepancies in maternal reports of infant sleep vs. Actigraphy by mode of feeding. Sleep Medicine, 49, 90–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2018.06.010.Google Scholar
Scelza, B. A., & Hinde, K. (2019). Crucial contributions: A biocultural study of grandmothering during the perinatal period. Human Nature, 30(4), 371–97. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12110-019-09356-2.Google Scholar
Scott, J. A., & Mostyn, T. (2003). Women’s experiences of breastfeeding in a bottle-feeding culture. Journal of Human Lactation, 19(3), 270–277. https://doi.org/10.1177/0890334403255225.Google Scholar
Sear, R. (2021). The male breadwinner nuclear family is not the ‘traditional’ human family, and promotion of this myth may have adverse health consequences. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 376(1827), 20200020. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2020.0020.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sellen, D. W. (2007). Evolution of infant and young child feeding: Implications for contemporary public health. Annual Review of Nutrition, 27(1), 123–48. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.25.050304.092557.Google Scholar
Simpson, D. A., Carson, C., Kurinczuk, J. J., & Quigley, M. A. (2022). Trends and inequalities in breastfeeding continuation from 1 to 6 weeks: Findings from six population-based British cohorts, 1985–2010. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 76(5), 671–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41430-021-01031-z.Google Scholar
Smith, T. M., Austin, C., Hinde, K., Vogel, E. R., & Arora, M. (2017). Cyclical nursing patterns in wild orangutans. Science Advances, 3(5), e1601517. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1601517.Google Scholar
Spatz, D. L. (2020). Using gender-neutral terms in lactation. MCN: The American Journal of Maternal/Child Nursing, 45(1), 61–61. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMC.0000000000000594.Google Scholar
Srimoragot, M., Hershberger, P. E., Park, C., Hernandez, T. L., & Izci Balserak, B. (2022). Infant feeding type and maternal sleep during the postpartum period: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Sleep Research, e13625. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsr.13625.Google Scholar
Standish, K. R., & Parker, M. G. (2022). Social determinants of breastfeeding in the United States. Clinical Therapeutics, 44(2), 186–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinthera.2021.11.010.Google Scholar
Stuebe, A. M., & Chen, M. J. (2022). 21 – Reproductive function during lactation. In Lawrence, R. A. & Lawrence, R. M. (eds.), Breastfeeding (Ninth Edition) (pp. 651–61). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-68013-4.00021-3.Google Scholar
Swanson, V., Power, K., Kaur, B., Carter, H., & Shepherd, K. (2006). The impact of knowledge and social influences on adolescents’ breast-feeding beliefs and intentions. Public Health Nutrition, 9(3), 297–305. https://doi.org/10.1079/PHN2005845.Google Scholar
Taylor, A. M., Teijlingen, E. van, Ryan, K. M., & Alexander, J. (2019). ‘Scrutinised, judged and sabotaged’: A qualitative video diary study of first-time breastfeeding mothers. Midwifery, 75, 16–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.midw.2019.04.004.Google Scholar
Theurich, M. A., Davanzo, R., Busck-Rasmussen, M. et al. (2019). Breastfeeding rates and programs in Europe: A survey of 11 national breastfeeding committees and representatives. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, 68(3), 400–7. https://doi.org/10.1097/mpg.0000000000002234.Google Scholar
Thomson, P., Medina, D. A., & Garrido, D. (2018). Human milk oligosaccharides and infant gut bifidobacteria: Molecular strategies for their utilization. Food Microbiology, 75, 37–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fm.2017.09.001.Google Scholar
Trickey, H., & Ashmore, S. (2017). Infant feeding: Changing the conversation. Infant, 13(1), 26–8. www.infantjournal.co.uk/pdf/inf_073_ngi.pdf.Google Scholar
Tschiderer, L., Seekircher, L., Kunutsor, S. K. et al. (2022). Breastfeeding is associated with a reduced maternal cardiovascular risk: Systematic review and meta‐analysis involving data from 8 studies and 1 192 700 parous women. Journal of the American Heart Association, 11(2), e022746. https://doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.121.022746Google Scholar
Tully, K. P., & Ball, H. L. (2013). Trade-offs underlying maternal breastfeeding decisions: A conceptual model. Maternal & Child Nutrition, 9(1), 90–98. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-8709.2011.00378.xGoogle Scholar
UNICEF. (2006). 1990-2005 Celebrating the innocenti declaration on the protection, promotion and support of breastfeeding: Past achievements, present challenges and priority actions for infant and young child feeding. www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/celebrating_2nded.pdf.Google Scholar
UNICEF. (2016). From the first hour of life: Making the case for improved infant and young child feeding everywhere. www.unicef.org/media/49801/file/From-the-first-hour-of-life-ENG.pdf.Google Scholar
UNICEF UK. (2017). Baby friendly initiative: Call to action. www.youtube.com/watch?v=7yNvkk_LfpU.Google Scholar
UNICEF, UK. (2022a). About the baby friendly initiative. www.unicef.org.uk/babyfriendly/about/Google Scholar
UNICEF, UK. (2022b). Breastfeeding in the UK. www.unicef.org.uk/babyfriendly/about/breastfeeding-in-the-uk/.Google Scholar
Uvnäs-Moberg, K., Ekström-Bergström, A., Buckley, S. et al. (2020). Maternal plasma levels of oxytocin during breastfeeding – A systematic review. PLOS ONE, 15(8), e0235806. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0235806.Google Scholar
Victora, C. G., Bahl, R., Barros, A. J. D. et al. (2016). Breastfeeding in the 21st century: Epidemiology, mechanisms, and lifelong effect. The Lancet, 387(10017), 475–490. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(15)01024-7.Google Scholar
Waits, A., Guo, C.-Y., & Chien, L.-Y. (2018). Evaluation of factors contributing to the decline in exclusive breastfeeding at 6 months postpartum: The 2011-2016 National Surveys in Taiwan. Birth, 45(2), 184–92. https://doi.org/10.1111/birt.12340.Google Scholar
Walks, M. (2017). Chestfeeding as gender fluid practice. In Tomori, C., Palmquist, A. E. L., Quinn, E. A. (Eds.), Breastfeeding: New anthropological approaches (pp. 155–69). Routledge.Google Scholar
Walters, D. D., Phan, L. T. H., & Mathisen, R. (2019). The cost of not breastfeeding: Global results from a new tool. Health Policy and Planning, 34(6), 407–17. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapol/czz050.Google Scholar
Wells, J. (2006). The role of cultural factors in human breastfeeding: Adaptive behaviour or biopower. Journal of Human Ecology, 14, 39–47.Google Scholar
Wells, J. C. K., Nesse, R. M., Sear, R., Johnstone, R. A., & Stearns, S. C. (2017). Evolutionary public health: Introducing the concept. The Lancet, 390(10093), 500–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30572-X.Google Scholar
WHO. (2008). Social determinants of health. WHO Regional Office for South-East Asia.Google Scholar
WHO. (2014). Comprehensive implementation plan on maternal, infant and young child nutrition. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/113048/WHO_NMH_NHD_14.1_eng.pdf;jsessionid=AD784AB0E3552127F4F2E95263166C86?sequence=1.Google Scholar
WHO. (2017a). Guidance on ending the inappropriate promotion of foods for infants and young children: Implementation manual. www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241513470.Google Scholar
WHO. (2017b). Guideline: Protecting, promoting and supporting breastfeeding in facilities providing maternity and newborn services. www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241550086.Google Scholar
WHO. (2018). Guideline: Counselling of women to improve breastfeeding practices. World Health Organisation. www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241550468.Google Scholar
WHO & UNICEF. (2018). Implementation guidance: Protecting, promoting and supporting breastfeeding in facilities providing maternity and newborn services: The revised baby-friendly hospital initiative. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/272943.Google Scholar
WHO Collaborative Study Team. (2000). Effect of breastfeeding on infant and child mortality due to infectious diseases in less developed countries: A pooled analysis. The Lancet, 355(9202), 451–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(00)82011-5.Google Scholar
Williams, H. (2006). And not a drop to drink’ – Why water is harmful for newborns. Breastfeeding Review, 14(2), 5–9.Google Scholar
Williamson, I., Leeming, D., Lyttle, S., & Johnson, S. (2012). ‘It should be the most natural thing in the world’: Exploring first-time mothers’ breastfeeding difficulties in the UK using audio-diaries and interviews. Maternal & Child Nutrition, 8(4), 434–47. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-8709.2011.00328.x.Google Scholar

Save element to Kindle

To save this element to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Improving Breastfeeding Rates
Available formats
×

Save element to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Improving Breastfeeding Rates
Available formats
×

Save element to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Improving Breastfeeding Rates
Available formats
×