Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dlnhk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T18:22:17.447Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 14 - Motor Thalamic Interactions with the Brainstem and Basal Ganglia

from Section 6: - Motor Control

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 August 2022

By
Jesse H. Goldberg
Edited by
Michael M. Halassa
Michael M. Halassa
Affiliation:
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Get access

Summary

The motor thalamus is interconnected with the brainstem, cortex, and basal ganglia and plays major roles in planning, sequencing, and executing action. In this chapter, I highlight roles of input-defined thalamic circuits in motor sequence production and learning. Brainstem–motor thalamic pathways carry efference copy signals important for the production of both innate and learned motor sequences, for example, during saccades, grooming, and birdsong. Basal ganglia thalamocortical loops implement aspects of reinforcement learning, including the generation of motor exploration during vocal babbling. Classic "gating" models of basal ganglia–thalamic transmission fail to explain thalamic discharge during behavior, which instead appears strongly driven by cortical inputs. A challenge going forward is to determine if there are conserved principles of thalamic function across diverse motor thalamic subregions.

Keywords

thalamusbasal gangliabrainstemreinforcement learningefference copysaccadesbirdsonggrooming
Type
Chapter
Information
The Thalamus , pp. 269 - 283
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2022

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ahrens, A.M., Meyer, P.J., Ferguson, L.M., Robinson, T.E., and Aldridge, J.W. (2016). Neural activity in the ventral pallidum encodes variation in the incentive value of a reward cue. J Neurosci 36, 7957–7970.Google Scholar
Aldridge, J.W., and Berridge, K.C. (1998). Coding of serial order by neostriatal neurons: a “natural action” approach to movement sequence. J Neurosci 18, 2777–2787.Google Scholar
Aldridge, J.W., Berridge, K.C., Herman, M., and Zimmer, L. (1993). Neuronal coding of serial order: syntax of grooming in the neostriatum. Psychol Sci 4, 391–395.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aldridge, J.W., Berridge, K.C., and Rosen, A.R. (2004). Basal ganglia neural mechanisms of natural movement sequences. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 82, 732–739.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alexander, G.E., DeLong, M.R., and Strick, P.L. (1986). Parallel organization of functionally segregated circuits linking basal ganglia and cortex. Annu Rev Neurosci 9, 357–381.Google Scholar
Andalman, A.S., Foerster, J.N., and Fee, M.S. (2010). Does HVC control the timing of respiratory events during singing? Presentation at Society for Neuroscience Conference, Abstract 4113.Google Scholar
Andersen, R.A., Essick, G.K., and Siegel, R.M. (1985). Encoding of spatial location by posterior parietal neurons. Science 230, 456–458.Google Scholar
Anderson, M.E., and Turner, R.S. (1991). Activity of neurons in cerebellar-receiving and pallidal-receiving areas of the thalamus of the behaving monkey. J Neurophysiol 66, 879–893.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aronov, D., Andalman, A.S., and Fee, M.S. (2008). A specialized forebrain circuit for vocal babbling in the juvenile songbird. Science 320, 630–634.Google Scholar
Ashmore, R.C., Renk, J.A., and Schmidt, M.F. (2008). Bottom-up activation of the vocal motor forebrain by the respiratory brainstem. J Neurosci 28, 2613–2623.Google Scholar
Bar-Gad, I., Morris, G., and Bergman, H. (2003). Information processing, dimensionality reduction and reinforcement learning in the basal ganglia. Prog Neurobiol 71, 439–473.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bentivoglio, M., van der Kooy, D., and Kuypers, H.G. (1979). The organization of the efferent projections of the substantia nigra in the rat.A retrograde fluorescent double labeling study. Brain Res 174, 1–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berridge, K.C. (1989). Progressive degradation of serial grooming chains by descending decerebration. Behav Brain Res 33, 241–253.Google Scholar
Berridge, K.C., and Aldridge, J.W. (2000). Super-stereotypy I: enhancement of a complex movement sequence by systemic dopamine D1 agonists. Synapse 37, 194–204.Google Scholar
Berridge, K. C., Aldridge, J. W., Houchard, K. R., and Zhuang, X. (2005). Sequential super-stereotypy of an instinctive fixed action pattern in hyper-dopaminergic mutant mice: a model of obsessive compulsive disorder and Tourette’s. BMC Biol 3, 4.Google Scholar
Bosch-Bouju, C., Hyland, B.I., and Parr-Brownlie, L.C. (2013). Motor thalamus integration of cortical, cerebellar and basal ganglia information: implications for normal and parkinsonian conditions. Front Comput Neurosci 7, 163.Google Scholar
Bosch-Bouju, C., Smither, R.A., Hyland, B.I., and Parr-Brownlie, L.C. (2014). Reduced reach-related modulation of motor thalamus neural activity in a rat model of Parkinson’s disease. J Neurosci 34, 15836–15850.Google Scholar
Bottjer, S.W., Miesner, E.A., and Arnold, A.P. (1984). Forebrain lesions disrupt development but not maintenance of song in passerine birds. Science 224, 901–903.Google Scholar
Bruno, R.M., and Sakmann, B. (2006). Cortex is driven by weak but synchronously active thalamocortical synapses. Science 312, 1622–1627.Google Scholar
Brzosko, Z., Mierau, S.B., and Paulsen, O. (2019). Neuromodulation of spike-timing-dependent plasticity: past, present, and future. Neuron 103, 563–581.Google Scholar
Canavan, A.G., Nixon, P.D., and Passingham, R.E. (1989). Motor learning in monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) with lesions in motor thalamus. Exp Brain Res 77, 113–126.Google Scholar
Chabrol, F.P., Blot, A., and Mrsic-Flogel, T.D. (2019). Cerebellar contribution to preparatory activity in motor neocortex. Neuron 103, 506–519.e504.Google Scholar
Chen, J.R., Stepanek, L., and Doupe, A.J. (2014). Differential contributions of basal ganglia and thalamus to song initiation, tempo, and structure. J Neurophysiol 111, 248–257.Google Scholar
Chen, R., and Goldberg, J.H. (2020). Actor-critic reinforcement learning in the songbird. Curr Opin Neurobiol 65, 1–9.Google Scholar
Chevalier, G., and Deniau, J.M. (1982). Inhibitory nigral influence on cerebellar evoked responses in the rat ventromedial thalamic nucleus. Exp Brain Res 48, 369–376.Google Scholar
Costa, R.M. (2011). A selectionist account of de novo action learning. Curr Opin Neurobiol 21, 579–586.Google Scholar
Cui, G., Jun, S.B., Jin, X., Pham, M.D., Vogel, S.S., Lovinger, D.M., and Costa, R.M. (2013). Concurrent activation of striatal direct and indirect pathways during action initiation. Nature 494, 238–242.Google Scholar
Danish, H.H., Aronov, D., and Fee, M.S. (2017). Rhythmic syllable-related activity in a songbird motor thalamic nucleus necessary for learned vocalizations. PLoS One 12, e0169568.Google Scholar
Daw, N.D., Niv, Y., and Dayan, P. (2006). Actions, policies, values and the basal ganglia. In E. Bezard (Ed.), Recent Breakthroughs in Basal Ganglia Research (New York: Nova Science), 1214–1221.Google Scholar
DeLong, M.R. (1990). Primate models of movement disorders of basal ganglia origin. Trends Neurosci 13, 281–285.Google Scholar
Dhawale, A.K., Wolff, S.B., Ko, R., and Ölveczky, B.P. (2019). The basal ganglia can control learned motor sequences independently of motor cortex. BioRxiv, 827261.Google Scholar
Dirlam, D.K. (1969). The effects of septal, thalamic, and tegmental lesions on general activity in the hooded rat. Can J Psychol 23, 303.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doupe, A.J., and Kuhl, P.K. (1999). Birdsong and human speech: common themes and mechanisms. Annu Rev Neurosci 22, 567–631.Google Scholar
Doupe, A.J., Perkel, D.J., Reiner, A., and Stern, E.A. (2005). Birdbrains could teach basal ganglia research a new song. Trends Neurosci 28, 353–363.Google Scholar
Dudman, J.T., and Krakauer, J.W. (2016). The basal ganglia: from motor commands to the control of vigor. Curr Opin Neurobiol 37, 158–166.Google Scholar
Fabre-Thorpe, M., and Levesque, F. (1991). Visuomotor relearning after brain damage crucially depends on the integrity of the ventrolateral thalamic nucleus. Behav Neurosci 105, 176.Google Scholar
Fee, M.S., Kozhevnikov, A.A., and Hahnloser, R.H. (2004). Neural mechanisms of vocal sequence generation in the songbird. Ann NY Acad Sci 1016, 153–170.Google Scholar
Feenders, G., Liedvogel, M., Rivas, M., Zapka, M., Horita, H., Hara, E., Wada, K., Mouritsen, H., and Jarvis, E.D. (2008). Molecular mapping of movement-associated areas in the avian brain: a motor theory for vocal learning origin. PLoS One 3, e1768.Google Scholar
Fiete, I.R., and Seung, H.S. (2006). Gradient learning in spiking neural networks by dynamic perturbation of conductances. Phys Rev Lett 97, 048104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gao, Z., Davis, C., Thomas, A.M., Economo, M.N., Abrego, A.M., Svoboda, K., De Zeeuw, C.I., and Li, N. (2018). A cortico-cerebellar loop for motor planning. Nature 563, 113–116.Google Scholar
Gold, J.I., and Shadlen, M.N. (2007). The neural basis of decision making. Annu Rev Neurosci 30, 535–574.Google Scholar
Goldberg, J.H., Farries, M.A., and Fee, M.S. (2012). Integration of cortical and pallidal inputs in the basal ganglia-recipient thalamus of singing birds. J Neurophysiol 108, 1403–1429.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldberg, J.H., Farries, M.A., and Fee, M.S. (2013). Basal ganglia output to the thalamus: still a paradox. Trends Neurosci 36, 695–705.Google Scholar
Goldberg, J.H., and Fee, M.S. (2011). Vocal babbling in songbirds requires the basal ganglia-recipient motor thalamus but not the basal ganglia. J Neurophysiol 105, 2729–2739.Google Scholar
Goldberg, J.H., and Fee, M.S. (2012). A cortical motor nucleus drives the basal ganglia-recipient thalamus in singing birds. Nat Neurosci 15, 620–627.Google Scholar
Grill, H.J., and Norgren, R. (1978). Neurological tests and behavioral deficits in chronic thalamic and chronic decerebrate rats. Brain Res 143, 299–312.Google Scholar
Guillery, R.W., and Sherman, S.M. (2002). The thalamus as a monitor of motor outputs. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 357, 1809–1821.Google Scholar
Hikosaka, O. (2007a). Basal ganglia mechanisms of reward-oriented eye movement. Ann NY Acad Sci 1104, 229–249.Google Scholar
Hikosaka, O. (2007b). GABAergic output of the basal ganglia. Prog Brain Res 160, 209–226.Google Scholar
Hikosaka, O., Nakamura, K., and Nakahara, H. (2006). Basal ganglia orient eyes to reward. J Neurophysiol 95, 567–584.Google Scholar
Hong, S., and Hikosaka, O. (2011). Dopamine-mediated learning and switching in cortico-striatal circuit explain behavioral changes in reinforcement learning. Front Behav Neurosci 5, 15.Google Scholar
Hooks, B.M., Mao, T., Gutnisky, D.A., Yamawaki, N., Svoboda, K., and Shepherd, G.M. (2013). Organization of cortical and thalamic input to pyramidal neurons in mouse motor cortex. J Neurosci 33, 748–760.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Humphries, M.D., and Prescott, T.J. (2010). The ventral basal ganglia, a selection mechanism at the crossroads of space, strategy, and reward. Prog Neurobiol 90, 385–417.Google Scholar
Ilinsky, I.A., and Kultas-Ilinsky, K. (2002). Motor thalamic circuits in primates with emphasis on the area targeted in treatment of movement disorders. Mov Disord 17 Suppl 3, S9–14.Google Scholar
Inase, M., Buford, J.A., and Anderson, M.E. (1996). Changes in the control of arm position, movement, and thalamic discharge during local inactivation in the globus pallidus of the monkey. J Neurophysiol 75, 1087–1104.Google Scholar
Ito, M., and Doya, K. (2009). Validation of decision-making models and analysis of decision variables in the rat basal ganglia. J Neurosci 29, 9861–9874.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Izhikevich, E.M. (2007). Solving the distal reward problem through linkage of STDP and dopamine signaling. Cereb Cortex 17, 2443–2452.Google Scholar
Izhikevich, E.M., and Edelman, G.M. (2008). Large-scale model of mammalian thalamocortical systems. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 105, 3593–3598.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jarvis, E.D., Gunturkun, O., Bruce, L., Csillag, A., Karten, H., Kuenzel, W., Medina, L., Paxinos, G., Perkel, D.J., Shimizu, T., et al. (2005). Avian brains and a new understanding of vertebrate brain evolution. Nat Rev Neurosci 6, 151–159.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jin, X., and Costa, R.M. (2010). Start/stop signals emerge in nigrostriatal circuits during sequence learning. Nature 466, 457–462.Google Scholar
Joel, D., Niv, Y., and Ruppin, E. (2002). Actor-critic models of the basal ganglia: new anatomical and computational perspectives. Neural Netw 15, 535–547.Google Scholar
Kakei, S., Hoffman, D.S., and Strick, P.L. (2003). Sensorimotor transformations in cortical motor areas. Neurosci Res 46, 1–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kao, M.H., and Brainard, M.S. (2006). Lesions of an avian basal ganglia circuit prevent context-dependent changes to song variability. J Neurophysiol 96, 1441–1455.Google Scholar
Katlowitz, K.A., Picardo, M.A., and Long, M.A. (2018). Stable sequential activity underlying the maintenance of a precisely executed skilled behavior. Neuron 98, 1133–1140 e1133.Google Scholar
Kawai, R., Markman, T., Poddar, R., Ko, R., Fantana, A.L., Dhawale, A.K., Kampff, A.R., and Olveczky, B.P. (2015). Motor cortex is required for learning but not for executing a motor skill. Neuron 86, 800–812.Google Scholar
Kojima, S., Kao, M.H., Doupe, A.J., and Brainard, M.S. (2018). The avian basal ganglia are a source of rapid behavioral variation that enables vocal motor exploration. J Neurosci 38, 9635–9647.Google Scholar
Kornfeld, J, M Januszewski, P Schubert, V Jain, W Denk, MS Fee. An anatomical substrate of credit assignment in reinforcement learning. bioRxiv 2020.02.18.954354; doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.02.18.954354Google Scholar
Koyama, M., and Pujala, A. (2018). Mutual inhibition of lateral inhibition: a network motif for an elementary computation in the brain. Curr Opin Neurobiol 49, 69–74.Google Scholar
Krauzlis, R.J., Liston, D., and Carello, C.D. (2004). Target selection and the superior colliculus: goals, choices and hypotheses. Vision Res 44, 1445–1451.Google Scholar
Kravitz, A.V., Freeze, B.S., Parker, P.R., Kay, K., Thwin, M.T., Deisseroth, K., and Kreitzer, A.C. (2010). Regulation of parkinsonian motor behaviours by optogenetic control of basal ganglia circuitry. Nature 466, 622–626.Google Scholar
Krout, K.E., Belzer, R.E., and Loewy, A.D. (2002). Brainstem projections to midline and intralaminar thalamic nuclei of the rat. J Comp Neurol 448, 53–101.Google Scholar
Kultas-Ilinsky, K., Ilinsky, I., Warton, S., and Smith, K.R. (1983). Fine structure of nigral and pallidal afferents in the thalamus: an EM autoradiography study in the cat. J Comp Neurol 216, 390–405.Google Scholar
Kunimatsu, J., and Tanaka, M. (2010). Roles of the primate motor thalamus in the generation of antisaccades. J Neurosci 30, 5108–5117.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leblois, A., Wendel, B.J., and Perkel, D.J. (2010). Striatal dopamine modulates basal ganglia output and regulates social context-dependent behavioral variability through D1 receptors. J Neurosci 30, 5730–5743.Google Scholar
Lee, J., Wang, W., and Sabatini, B.L. (2020). Anatomically segregated basal ganglia pathways allow parallel behavioral modulation. Nat Neurosci 23, 1388–1398.Google Scholar
Lillicrap, T.P., Santoro, A., Marris, L., Akerman, C.J., and Hinton, G. (2020). Backpropagation and the brain. Nat Rev Neurosci, 1–12.Google Scholar
Long, M.A., and Fee, M.S. (2008). Using temperature to analyse temporal dynamics in the songbird motor pathway. Nature 456, 189–194.Google Scholar
Lorincz, E., and Fabre-Thorpe, M. (1997). Effect of pairing red nucleus and motor thalamic lesions on reaching toward moving targets in cats. Behav Neurosci 111, 892–907.Google Scholar
Lynch, G.F., Okubo, T.S., Hanuschkin, A., Hahnloser, R.H., and Fee, M.S. (2016). Rhythmic continuous-time coding in the songbird analog of vocal motor cortex. Neuron 90, 877–892.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maia, T.V., and Frank, M.J. (2011). From reinforcement learning models to psychiatric and neurological disorders. Nat Neurosci 14, 154–162.Google Scholar
Marsden, C.D., and Obeso, J.A. (1994). The functions of the basal ganglia and the paradox of stereotaxic surgery in Parkinson’s disease. Brain 117 (Pt 4), 877–897.Google Scholar
Matsumoto, N., Minamimoto, T., Graybiel, A.M., and Kimura, M. (2001). Neurons in the thalamic CM-Pf complex supply striatal neurons with information about behaviorally significant sensory events. J Neurophysiol 85, 960–976.Google Scholar
McElvain, L.E., Chen, Y., Moore, J.D., Brigidi, G.S., Bloodgood, B.L., Lim, B.K., Costa, R.M., and Kleinfeld, D. (2021). Specific populations of basal ganglia output neurons target distinct brain stem areas while collateralizing throughout the diencephalon. Neuron 109, 1721–1738.e4.Google Scholar
McGregor, M.M., and Nelson, A.B. (2019). Circuit mechanisms of Parkinson’s disease. Neuron 101, 1042–1056.Google Scholar
McLean, J., Bricault, S., and Schmidt, M.F. (2013). Characterization of respiratory neurons in the rostral ventrolateral medulla, an area critical for vocal production in songbirds. J Neurophysiol 109, 948–957.Google Scholar
Meyer-Luehmann, M., Thompson, J.F., Berridge, K.C., and Aldridge, J.W. (2002). Substantia nigra pars reticulata neurons code initiation of a serial pattern: implications for natural action sequences and sequential disorders. Eur J Neurosci 16, 1599–1608.Google Scholar
Mink, J.W. (1996). The basal ganglia: focused selection and inhibition of competing motor programs. Prog Neurobiol 50, 381–425.Google Scholar
Mysore, S.P., and Knudsen, E.I. (2011). The role of a midbrain network in competitive stimulus selection. Curr Opin Neurobiol 21, 653–660.Google Scholar
Mysore, S.P., and Knudsen, E.I. (2012). Reciprocal inhibition of inhibition: a circuit motif for flexible categorization in stimulus selection. Neuron 73, 193–205.Google Scholar
Oh, S.W., Harris, J.A., Ng, L., Winslow, B., Cain, N., Mihalas, S., Wang, Q., Lau, C., Kuan, L., and Henry, A.M. (2014). A mesoscale connectome of the mouse brain. Nature 508, 207–214.Google Scholar
Olveczky, B.P., Andalman, A.S., and Fee, M.S. (2005). Vocal experimentation in the juvenile songbird requires a basal ganglia circuit. PLoS Biol 3, e153.Google Scholar
Ostendorf, F., Liebermann, D., and Ploner, C.J. (2010). Human thalamus contributes to perceptual stability across eye movements. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107, 1229–1234.Google Scholar
Pasupathy, A., and Miller, E.K. (2005). Different time courses of learning-related activity in the prefrontal cortex and striatum. Nature 433, 873–876.Google Scholar
Person, A.L., Gale, S.D., Farries, M.A., and Perkel, D.J. (2008). Organization of the songbird basal ganglia, including area X. J Comp Neurol 508, 840–866.Google Scholar
Person, A.L., and Perkel, D.J. (2005). Unitary IPSPs drive precise thalamic spiking in a circuit required for learning. Neuron 46, 129–140.Google Scholar
Redgrave, P., Prescott, T.J., and Gurney, K. (1999).The basal ganglia: a vertebrate solution to the selection problem? Neuroscience 89, 1009–1023.Google Scholar
Richard, J.M., Stout, N., Acs, D., and Janak, P.H. (2018). Ventral pallidal encoding of reward-seeking behavior depends on the underlying associative structure. eLife 7, e33107.Google Scholar
Rikhye, R.V., Wimmer, R.D., and Halassa, M.M. (2018). Toward an integrative theory of thalamic function. Annu Rev Neurosci 41, 163–183.Google Scholar
Roseberry, T.K., Lee, A.M., Lalive, A.L., Wilbrecht, L., Bonci, A., and Kreitzer, A.C. (2016). Cell-type-specific control of brainstem locomotor circuits by basal ganglia. Cell 164, 526–537.Google Scholar
Rosin, B., Nevet, A., Elias, S., Rivlin-Etzion, M., Israel, Z., and Bergman, H. (2007). Physiology and pathophysiology of the basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical networks. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 13 Suppl 3, S437–439.Google Scholar
Rossi, M.A., Li, H.E., Lu, D., Kim, I.H., Bartholomew, R.A., Gaidis, E., Barter, J.W., Kim, N., Cai, M.T., Soderling, S.H., and Yin, H.H. (2016). A GABAergic nigrotectal pathway for coordination of drinking behavior. Nat Neurosci 19, 742–748.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rubin, J.E., McIntyre, C.C., Turner, R.S., and Wichmann, T. (2012). Basal ganglia activity patterns in parkinsonism and computational modeling of their downstream effects. Eur J Neurosci 36, 2213–2228.Google Scholar
Ruder, L., and Arber, S. (2019). Brainstem circuits controlling action diversification. Annu Rev Neurosci 42, 485–504.Google Scholar
Samejima, K., and Doya, K. (2007). Multiple representations of belief states and action values in corticobasal ganglia loops. Ann NY Acad Sci 1104, 213–228.Google Scholar
Sauerbrei, B.A., Guo, J.Z., Cohen, J.D., Mischiati, M., Guo, W., Kabra, M., Verma, N., Mensh, B., Branson, K., and Hantman, A.W. (2020). Cortical pattern generation during dexterous movement is input-driven. Nature 577, 386–391.Google Scholar
Sayin, S., De Backer, J.-F., Siju, K., Wosniack, M.E., Lewis, L.P., Frisch, L.-M., Gansen, B., Schlegel, P., Edmondson-Stait, A., and Sharifi, N. (2019). A neural circuit arbitrates between persistence and withdrawal in hungry Drosophila. Neuron 104, 544–558.e546.Google Scholar
Schall, J.D. (1995). Neural basis of saccade target selection. Rev Neurosci 6, 63–63.Google Scholar
Scharff, C., and Nottebohm, F. (1991). A comparative study of the behavioral deficits following lesions of various parts of the zebra finch song system: implications for vocal learning. J Neurosci 11, 2896–2913.Google Scholar
Schlag-Rey, M., and Schlag, J. (1984). Visuomotor functions of central thalamus in monkey. I. Unit activity related to spontaneous eye movements. J Neurophysiol 51, 1149–1174.Google Scholar
Schmidt, M.F. (2003). Pattern of interhemispheric synchronization in HVc during singing correlates with key transitions in the song pattern. J Neurophysiol 90, 3931–3949.Google Scholar
Schmidt, M.F., Ashmore, R.C., and Vu, E.T. (2004). Bilateral control and interhemispheric coordination in the avian song motor system. Ann NY Acad Sci 1016, 171–186.Google Scholar
Schultz, W. (2007). Behavioral dopamine signals. Trends Neurosci 30, 203–210.Google Scholar
Schwab, B.C., Kase, D., Zimnik, A., Rosenbaum, R., Codianni, M.G., Rubin, J.E., and Turner, R.S. (2020). Neural activity during a simple reaching task in macaques is counter to gating and rebound in basal ganglia–thalamic communication. PLoS Biol 18, e3000829.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shen, W., Flajolet, M., Greengard, P., and Surmeier, D.J. (2008). Dichotomous dopaminergic control of striatal synaptic plasticity. Science 321, 848–851.Google Scholar
Sheth, S.A., Abuelem, T., Gale, J.T., and Eskandar, E.N. (2011). Basal ganglia neurons dynamically facilitate exploration during associative learning. J Neurosci 31, 4878–4885.Google Scholar
Shin, S., and Sommer, M.A. (2012). Division of labor in frontal eye field neurons during presaccadic remapping of visual receptive fields. J Neurophysiol 108, 2144–2159.Google Scholar
Sommer, M.A., and Wurtz, R.H. (2004a). What the brain stem tells the frontal cortex. I. Oculomotor signals sent from superior colliculus to frontal eye field via mediodorsal thalamus. J Neurophysiol 91, 1381–1402.Google Scholar
Sommer, M.A., and Wurtz, R.H. (2004b). What the brain stem tells the frontal cortex.II. Role of the SC-MD-FEF pathway in corollary discharge. J Neurophysiol 91, 1403–1423.Google Scholar
Sommer, M.A., and Wurtz, R.H. (2008). Brain circuits for the internal monitoring of movements. Annu Rev Neurosci 31, 317–338.Google Scholar
Srivastava, N., Hinton, G., Krizhevsky, A., Sutskever, I., and Salakhutdinov, R. (2014). Dropout: a simple way to prevent neural networks from overfitting. J Mach Learn Res 15, 1929–1958.Google Scholar
Strick, P.L. (1976). Activity of ventrolateral thalamic neurons during arm movement. J Neurophysiol 39, 1032–1044.Google Scholar
Suri, R.E., and Schultz, W. (1998). Learning of sequential movements by neural network model with dopamine-like reinforcement signal. Exp Brain Res 121, 350–354.Google Scholar
Surmeier, D.J., Plotkin, J., and Shen, W. (2009). Dopamine and synaptic plasticity in dorsal striatal circuits controlling action selection. Curr Opin Neurobiol 19, 621–628.Google Scholar
Takahashi, Y., Schoenbaum, G., and Niv, Y. (2008). Silencing the critics: understanding the effects of cocaine sensitization on dorsolateral and ventral striatum in the context of an actor/critic model. Front Neurosci 2, 86–99.Google Scholar
Tchernichovski, O., Mitra, P.P., Lints, T., and Nottebohm, F. (2001). Dynamics of the vocal imitation process: how a zebra finch learns its song. Science 291, 2564–2569.Google Scholar
Thakkar, K.N., and Rolfs, M. (2019). Disrupted corollary discharge in schizophrenia: Evidence from the oculomotor system. Biol Psychiatry: Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging 4, 773–781.Google Scholar
Theeuwes, J. (2010). Top–down and bottom–up control of visual selection. Acta Psychol 135, 77–99.Google Scholar
Thorndike, E.L. (1911). Animal Intelligence (Darien, CT: Hafner).Google Scholar
Tian, J., Huang, R., Cohen, J.Y., Osakada, F., Kobak, D., Machens, C.K., Callaway, E.M., Uchida, N., and Watabe-Uchida, M. (2016). Distributed and mixed information in monosynaptic inputs to dopamine neurons. Neuron 91, 1374–1389.Google Scholar
Tindell, A.J., Berridge, K.C., and Aldridge, J.W. (2004). Ventral pallidal representation of pavlovian cues and reward: population and rate codes. J Neurosci 24, 1058–1069.Google Scholar
Vaadia, E., Haalman, I., Abeles, M., Bergman, H., Prut, Y., Slovin, H., and Aertsen, A. (1995). Dynamics of neuronal interactions in monkey cortex in relation to behavioural events. Nature 373, 515–518.Google Scholar
van Donkelaar, P., Stein, J.F., Passingham, R.E., and Miall, R.C. (2000). Temporary inactivation in the primate motor thalamus during visually triggered and internally generated limb movements. J Neurophysiol 83, 2780–2790.Google Scholar
Vu, E.T., Schmidt, M.F., and Mazurek, M.E. (1998). Interhemispheric coordination of premotor neural activity during singing in adult zebra finches. J Neurosci 18, 9088–9098.Google Scholar
Wang, C.Z., Herbst, J.A., Keller, G.B., and Hahnloser, R.H. (2008). Rapid interhemispheric switching during vocal production in a songbird. PLoS Biol 6, e250.Google Scholar
Wild, J.M. (1997). Neural pathways for the control of birdsong production. J Neurobiol 33, 653–670.Google Scholar
Wolff, S., and Ölveczky, B. (2018). The promise and perils of causal circuit manipulations. Curre Opin Neurobiol 49, 84–94.Google Scholar
Wolff, S.B., Ko, R., and Ölveczky, B.P. (2019). Distinct roles for motor cortical and thalamic inputs to striatum during motor learning and execution. bioRxiv, 825810.Google Scholar
Woods, J.W. (1964). Behavior of chronic decerebrate rats. J Neurophysiol 27, 635–644.Google Scholar
Yin, H.H., Ostlund, S.B., and Balleine, B.W. (2008). Reward-guided learning beyond dopamine in the nucleus accumbens: the integrative functions of cortico-basal ganglia networks. Eur J Neurosci 28, 1437–1448.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×