Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-m6dg7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-09T06:56:31.010Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

6 - The epidemiology of pediatric HIV disease

from Part I - Scientific basis of pediatric HIV care

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 February 2010

By
Mary Lou Lindegren ,
Teresa Hammett  and
Marc Bulterys
Edited by
Steven L. Zeichner  and
Jennifer S. Read
Mary Lou Lindegren
Affiliation:
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA
Teresa Hammett
Affiliation:
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA
Marc Bulterys
Affiliation:
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA
Steven L. Zeichner
Affiliation:
National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland
Jennifer S. Read
Affiliation:
National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland
Get access

Summary

Introduction

Worldwide, an estimated 2.1 million children were living with HIV infection, and an estimated 2000 new infections in children occurred each day, during 2003 [1]. Mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of HIV represents the most common means by which children become infected with HIV. In the new millennium, the challenge is to reduce missed opportunities for prevention of transmission of HIV to children in the US and other resource-rich settings, and at the same time to extend the benefits of recent advances in prevention of pediatric HIV infection to resource-poor settings. This chapter will review the current epidemiology of HIV infection in children in the US, and briefly review the growing worldwide impact of HIV on children.

HIV/AIDS among children in the USA

HIV infection and AIDS reporting

Through June 2001, 8994 US children with AIDS were reported to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) from all 50 states, Puerto Rico, the District of Columbia, and the US Virgin Islands (Table 6.1) [2]. Fifty-six percent of all cases were reported from only four states: New York (25%), Florida (16%), New Jersey (8%), and California (7%). The majority of AIDS cases (91%) and virtually all new HIV infections resulted from MTCT. Seven percent (7%) of children with AIDS acquired their infection through receipt of contaminated blood or blood products.

Type
Chapter
Information
Textbook of Pediatric HIV Care , pp. 84 - 102
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2005

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

UNAIDS. http://www.unaids.org/html/pub/Topics/Epidemiology/Slides02_EpicoreJuly04_en_pt.ppt
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Surveillance Report. 13: (2001), 1–41
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Surveillance Report. 12: 1 (2000), 25
Hammett, T. A., Bush, T. J., & Ciesielski, C. A. Pediatric Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome cases reported with no identified risk. Presented at the American Public Health Association Meeting, San Francisco, CA. Abstract 1023, (1993), 19
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Guidelines for national human immunodeficiency virus case surveillance, including monitoring for human immunodeficiency virus infection and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. MMWR 48 Relative Risk-13 (1999), 1–31
American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Pediatric Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. Surveillance of pediatric Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection. Pediatrics 101: 2 (1998), 315–19CrossRef
Selik, R. M., Ward, J. W. & Buehler, J. W.Trends in transfusion-associated acquired immune deficiency syndrome in the United States, 1982 through 1991. Transfusion 33: 11 (1993), 890–3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, D. S., Byers, R. H., Bush, T. J., Oxtoby, M. J. & Rogers, M. F.Epidemiology of transfusion-associated acquired immuno-deficiency syndrome in children in the United States, 1981 through 1989. Pediatrics 89: 1 (1992), 123–7Google ScholarPubMed
Gellert, G. A., Durfee, M. J., Berkowitz, C. D., Higgins, K. V. & Tubiolo, V. C.Situational and sociodemographic characteristics of children infected with human immunodeficiency virus from pediatric sexual abuse. Pediatrics 91: 1 (1993), 39–44Google ScholarPubMed
Gutman, L. T., St Claire, K. K., Weedy, C.. Human immuno-deficiency virus transmission by child sexual abuse. Am. J. Dis. Child. 145: 2 (1991), 137–41Google ScholarPubMed
Lindegren, M. L., Hanson, I. C., Hammett, T. A., Beil, J., Fleming, P. L. & Ward, J. W.Sexual abuse of children: intersection with the Human Immunodeficiency Virus epidemic. Pediatrics 102: 4 (1998), E46CrossRefGoogle Scholar
United States Department of Health and Human Services. Child Maltreatment 1995; Reports from the States to the National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect Data System. Washington, Dendritic Cells: US Government Printing Office (1998)
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually Transmitted diseases: treatment guidelines 2002. MMWR 51: Relative Risk-6 (2002), 1–84
American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee of Pediatric Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome and Committee on Infectious Diseases. Issues related to human immunodeficiency virus transmission in schools, child care, medical settings, the home, and community. Pediatrics 104: 2 (1999), 318–24CrossRef
Simonds, R. J. & Chanock, S.Medical issues related to caring for human immunodeficiency virus-infected children in and out of the home. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 12: 10 (1993), 845–52CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Human immunodeficiency virus transmission in household settings — United States. MMWR 43: 19 (1994), 347, 353–347, 356
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Update: universal precautions for prevention of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis B virus, and other bloodborne pathogens in health-care settings. MMWR 37: 24 (1988), 377–8
American Academy of Pediatrics: Committee on Pediatric Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Education of children with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Pediatrics 105: 6 (2000), 1358–60CrossRef
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Education and foster care of children infected with human T-lymphotropic virus type III/lymphadenopathy-associated virus. MMWR 34 (1985), 517–21
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome — United States, 1981–2000. MMWR 50: 21 (2001), 430–4
Wortley, P. M. & Fleming, P. L.Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome in women in the United States. Recent trends. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 278: 11 (1997), 911–16CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hader, S. L., Smith, D. K., Moore, J. S. & Holmberg, S. D.Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection in women in the United States: status at the Millennium. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 285: 9 (2001), 1186–92CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Revised recommendations for Human Immunodeficiency Virus screening of pregnant women. MMWR 50: Relative Risk-19 (2001), 63–85
Karon, J. M.Fleming, P. L., Steketee, R. W. & Cock, K. M.Human Immunodeficiency Virus in the United States at the turn of the century: an epidemic in transition. Am. J. Public Health 91: 7 (2001), 1060–8Google ScholarPubMed
Davis, S. F., Rosen, D. H., Steinberg, S., Wortley, P. M., Karon, J. M. & Gwinn, M, . Trends in Human Immunodeficiency Virus prevalence among childbearing women in the United States, 1989–1994. J. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Hum. Retrovirol. 19: 2 (1998), 158–64CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, L. M., Wortley, P. M., Fleming, P. L. & Eldred, L. J. & Gray, R. H.Duration of human immunodeficiency virus infection and likelihood of giving birth in a Medicaid population in Maryland. Am. J. Epidemiol. 151: 10 (2000), 1020–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lindsay, M. K., Peterson, H. B., Willis, S.. Incidence and prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus infection in a prenatal population undergoing routine voluntary human immunodeficiency virus screening, July 1987 to June 1990. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 165: 4 (1991), 961–4CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chirgwin, K. D., Feldman, J., Dehovitz, J. A., Minkoff, H. & Landesman, S. H.Incidence and risk factors for heterosexually acquired Human Immunodeficiency Virus in an inner-city cohort of women: temporal association with pregnancy. J. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Hum. Retrovirol. 20: 3 (1999), 295–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fleming, P. L., Lindegren, M. L., Byers, R.. Estimated number of perinatal Human Immunodeficiency Virus infections, United States, 2000. In XIV International Conference, Barcelona, Spain. (2002). [Abstract TuPeC4773.]
Karon, J. M., Rosenberg, P. S., McQuillan, G., Khare, M., Gwinn, M. & Petersen, L. R.Prevalence of Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection in the United States, 1984 to 1992. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 276: 2 (1996), 126–31CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, J. M., Hanson, D. L., Jones, J. L.. Trends in pregnancy rates among women with human immunodeficiency virus. Obstet. Gynecol 103: (2004); 663–8CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nakashima, A. K. & Fleming, P. L.Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome surveillance in the United States, 1981–2001. J. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 32: Suppl. 1 (2003), S68–85CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Advancing Human Immunodeficiency Virus prevention: new strategies for a changing epidemic — United States, 2003. MMWR 52: Relative Risk-15 (2003), 329–32
Joint statement of the American Academy of Pediatrics and the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Human immunodeficiency virus screening. Pediatrics 104: 1 (1999), 128
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Revision of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention surveillance case definition for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists; Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Program, Center for Infectious Diseases. MMWR 36: Suppl. 1 (1987), 1S–15S
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1994 Revised classification system for human immunodeficiency virus infection in children less than 13 years of age. MMWR 43: Relative Risk-12 (1994), 1–10
Green, T. A.Using surveillance data to monitor trends in the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome epidemic. Stat. Med. 17: 2 (1998), 143–543.0.CO;2-Y>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karon, J., Devine, O. J. & Morgan, W. M. Predicting Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome incidence by extrapolating from recent trends. In C. Castillo-Chavez (ed.), Mathematical and Statistical Approaches to Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Epidemiology. Lecture Notes in Biomathematics, Vol. 83. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, (1989), pp. 58–88
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in pediatric Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection. MMWR 47: Relative Risk-4 (1998), 1–43
Hammett, T. A., Lindegren, M. L., Byers, R. et al. Progress towards elimination of perinatal Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection in the United States. In XIII International Conference on Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, Durban, South Africa (2000). [Abstract MoOrC239.]
Lindegren, M. L., Byers, R. H. Jr., Thomas, P.. Trends in perinatal transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome in the United States. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 282: 6 (1999), 531–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Recommendation of the U.S. Public Health Service Task Force on the use of zidovudine to reduce perinatal transmission of human immunodeficiency virus. MMWR 43: Relative Risk-11 (1994), 1–20
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. U.S. Public Health Service recommendations for human immunodeficiency virus counseling and voluntary testing for pregnant women. MMWR 44: Relative Risk-7 (1995), 1–15
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Public Health Service Task Force recommendations for the use of antiretroviral drugs in pregnant women infected with Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 for maternal health and for reducing perinatal Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 transmission in the United States. MMWR 47: Relative Risk-2 (1998), 1–30. (Updates available at http://AIDSinfo.nih.gov)
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Public Health Service Task Force recommendations for the use of antiretroviral drugs in pregnant women infected with Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 for maternal health and for reducing perinatal Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 transmission in the United States. http://www.aidsinfor.nih.gov/guidelines (2002)
Lindegren, M. L., Bi, D., Wortley, P. et al. Evaluation of zidovudine prophylaxis regimens on perinatal Human Immunodeficiency Virus transmission using enhanced perinatal surveillance, 7 states, US. In XIII International Conference on Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, Durban, South Africa (2000) [Abstract MoPeC2448.]
Matheson, P. B., Abrams, E. J., Thomas, P. A.. Efficacy of antenatal zidovudine in reducing perinatal transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. The New York City Perinatal Human Immunodeficiency Virus Transmission Collaborative Study Group. J. Infect. Dis. 172: 2 (1995), 353–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fiscus, S. A., Adimora, A. A., Schoenbach, V. J.. Perinatal Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection and the effect of zidovudine therapy on transmission in rural and urban countries. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 275: 19 (1996), 1483–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simonds, R. J., Steketee, R., Nesheim, S.. Impact of zidovudine use on risk and risk factors for perinatal transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus. Perinatal Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Collaborative Transmission Studies. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 12: 3 (1998), 301–8Google Scholar
Cooper, E. R., Nugent, R. P., Diaz, C.. After Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome clinical trial 076: the changing pattern of zidovudine use during pregnancy, and the subsequent reduction in the vertical transmission of human immunodeficiency virus in a cohort of infected women and their infants. Women and Infants Transmission Study Group. J. Infect. Dis. 174: 6 (1996), 1207–11CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stiehm, E. R., Lambert, J. S., Mofenson, L. M.. Efficacy of zidovudine and human immunodeficiency virus (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) hyperimmune immunoglobulin for reducing perinatal Human Immunodeficiency Virus transmission from Human Immunodeficiency Virus-infected women with advanced disease: results of Pediatric Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Clinical Trials Group protocol 185. J. Infect. Dis. 179: 3 (1999), 567–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garcia, P. M., Kalish, L. A., Pitt, J.. Maternal levels of plasma human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Ribonucleic Acid and the risk of perinatal transmission Study Group. New Engl. J. Med. 341: 6 (1999), 394–402CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mofenson, L. M., Lambert, J. S., Stiehm, E. R.. Risk factors for perinatal transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in women treated with zidovudine. Pediatric Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Clinical Trials Group Study 185 Team. New Engl. J. Med. 341: 6 (1999), 385–93CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dorenbaum, A., Cunningham, C. K., Gelber, R. D.. Two-dose intrapartum/newborn nevirapine and standard antiretroviral therapy to reduce perinatal Human Immunodeficiency Virus transmission: a randomized trial. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 288: 2 (2002), 189–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooper, E. R., Charurat, M., Mofenson, L.. Combination antiretroviral strategies for the treatment of pregnant Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1-infected women and prevention of perinatal Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 transmission. J. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 29: 5 (2002), 484–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mandelbrot, L., Landreau-Mascaro, A., Rekacewicz, C.. Lamivudine-zidovudine combination for prevention of maternal—infant transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 285: 16 (2001), 2083–93CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Institute of Medicine. Reducing the Odds. Preventing Perinatal Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus in the United States. Washington, Dendritic Cells: National Academy Press (1999)
Orloff, S. L., Bulterys, M., Vink, P.. Maternal characteristics associated with antenatal, intrapartum, and neonatal zidovudine use in four US cities, 1994–1998. J. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 28: 1 (2001), 65–72CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wortley, P., Lindegren, M. L. & Fleming, P. L.Successful implementation of perinatal Human Immunodeficiency Virus prevention guidelines: a multistate surveillance evaluation. MMWR 50: Relative Risk-06 (2001), 17–28Google ScholarPubMed
Mokotoff, E. D., Malamud, B. H., Kent, J. B.. Progress toward elimination of perinatal Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection — Michigan, 1993–2000. MMWR 51: 5 (2002), 94–7Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Entry into prenatal care — United States, 1989–1997. MMWR 49 (2000), 393–8
Minkoff, H. & Sullivan, M. J.The case for rapid Human Immunodeficiency Virus testing during labor. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 279: 21 (1998), 1743–4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bulterys, M., Jamieson, D. J., O'Sullivan, M. J.. Rapid Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 testing during labor: a multicenter study. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 292: (2004), 219–23CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stringer, J. S. & Rouse, D. J.Rapid testing and zidovudine treatment to prevent vertical transmission of human immunodeficiency virus in unregistered parturients: a cost-effectiveness analysis. Obstet. Gynecol. 94: 1 (1999), 34–40Google ScholarPubMed
Grobman, W. A. & Garcia, P. M.The cost-effectiveness of voluntary intrapartum rapid human immunodeficiency virus testing for women without adequate prenatal care. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 181: 5 (1999), 1062–71CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Prenatal discussion of Human Immunodeficiency Virus testing and maternal Human Immunodeficiency Virus testing — 14 states, 1996–1997. MMWR 48: 19 (1999), 401–4
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Human Immunodeficiency Virus testing among pregnant women — United States and Canada, 1998–2001. MMWR 51: 45 (2002), 1013–16
Sansom, S. L., Jamieson, D. J., Farnham, P. G., Bulterys, M. & Fowler, M. G, . Human immunodeficiency virus retesting during pregnancy; costs and effectiveness in preventing perinatal transmission. Obstet. Gynecol. 102: 4 (2003), 782–90Google ScholarPubMed
Perinatal human immunodeficiency virus testing. Provisional Committee on Pediatric Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, American Academy of Pediatrics. Pediatrics 95: 2 (1995), 303–7
Hale, R. & Zinberg, S.American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists's position on Human Immunodeficiency Virus testing. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists Clin. Rev. 2: 1 (1997), 13Google Scholar
Lansky, A., Jones, J. L., Fry, R.. Trends in Human Immunodeficiency Virus testing among pregnant women, United States, 1994–1999. Am. J. Public Health 91 (2001), 1291–3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
The International Perinatal Human Immunodeficiency Virus Group. The mode of delivery and the risk of vertical transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 — a meta-analysis of 15 prospective cohort studies. New Engl. J. Med. 340: 13 (1999), 977–87CrossRef
The European Mode of Delivery Collaboration. Elective caesarean-section versus vaginal delivery in prevention of vertical Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 transmission: a randomised clinical trial. Lancet 353: 9158 (1999), 1035–9CrossRef
Dominguez, K. L., Lindegren, M. L., d'Almada, P. J.. Increasing trend of cesarean deliveries in Human Immunodeficiency Virus-infected women in the United States from 1994 to 2000. J. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 33: 2 (2003), 232–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
A report of the Dahlem Workshop on the eradication of infectious diseases. Berlin, March 16–22, 1997. In W. R. Dowdle & D. R. Hopkins (eds.), The Eradication of Infectious Diseases Indianapolis, IN: John Wiley & Sons (1997)
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Perinatal Human Immunodeficiency Virus Prevention Program. http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/projects/perinatal/grantees.htm (2003)
McNaghten, A. D., Hanson, D. L., Jones, J. L., Dworkin, M. S. & Ward, J. W.Effects of antiretroviral therapy and opportunistic illness primary chemoprophylaxis on survival after Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome diagnosis. Adult/Adolescent Spectrum of Disease Group. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 13: 13 (1999), 1687–95Google ScholarPubMed
Palella, F. J. Jr., Delaney, K. M., Moorman, A. C.. Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. Human Immunodeficiency Virus Outpatient Study Investigators. New Engl. J. Med. 338: 13 (1998), 853–60CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gortmaker, S. L., Hughes, M., Cervia, J.. Effect of combination therapy including protease inhibitors on mortality among children and adolescents infected with Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1. New Engl. J. Med. 345: 21 (2001), 1522–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fleming, P. L., Ward, J. W., Karon, J. M., Hanson, D. L. & Cock, K. M.Declines in Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome incidence and deaths in the USA: a signal change in the epidemic. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 12: Suppl A (1998), S55–61Google ScholarPubMed
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in Human Immunodeficiency Virus-infected adults and adolescents. Department of Health and Human Services and Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. MMWR 47: Relative Risk-5 (1998), 43–82
DeMartino, M., Tovo, P. A., Balducci, M.. Reduction in mortality with availability of antiretroviral therapy for children with perinatal Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 infection. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 284 (2000), 190–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frederick, T., Mascola, L., Peters, V. et al. Trends in Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy use and immune status among Human Immunodeficiency Virus-infected infants and children in the pediatric spectrum of disease project, United States, 1994–2000. In XIV International Conference on Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, Barcelona, Spain (2002). [Abstract TuPeC4735.]
Abrams, E. J., Wiener, J., Carter, R.. Maternal health factors and early pediatric antiretroviral therapy influence the rate of perinatal Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 disease progression in children. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 17: 6 (2003), 867–77Google ScholarPubMed
Selik, R. M. & Lindegren, M. L.Changes in deaths reported with human immunodeficiency virus infection among US children less than 13 years old, 1987 through 1999 Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 22: 7 (2003), 635–41CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abrams, E. J., Weedon, J., Bertolli, J.. Aging cohort of perinatally human immunodeficiency virus-infected children in New York City. New York City Pediatric Surveillance of Disease Consortium. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 20: 5 (2001), 511–17CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blanche, S., Mayaux, M. J., Rouzioux, C.. Relation of the course of Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection in children to the severity of the disease in their mothers at delivery. New Engl. J. Med. 330: 5 (1994), 308–12CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Matte, C. & Roger, M.Genetic determinants of pediatric Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 infection: vertical transmission and disease progression among children. Mol. Med. 7: 9 (2001), 583–9Google Scholar
Barroga, C. F., Raskino, C., Fangon, M. C.. The CCR5Delta32 allele slows disease progression of human immunodeficiency virus-1-infected children receiving antiretroviral treatment. J. Infect. Dis. 182: 2 (2000), 413–19CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Misrahi, M., Teglas, J. P., N'Go, N.. CCR5 chemokine receptor variant in Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 mother-to-child transmission and disease progression in children. French Pediatric Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection Study Group. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 279: 4 (1998), 277–80CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Guidelines for prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia for children infected with human immunodeficiency virus. MMWR 40: Relative Risk-2 (1991), 1–13
Simonds, R. J., Lindegren, M. L., Thomas, P.. Prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia among children with perinatally acquired human immunodeficiency virus infection in the United States. Pneumocystis carinii Pneumonia Prophylaxis Evaluation Working Group. New Engl. J. Med. 332: 12 (1995), 786–90CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1995 revised guidelines for prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia for children infected with or perinatally exposed to human immunodeficiency virus. National Pediatric and Family Human Immunodeficiency Virus Resource Center and National Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. MMWR 44: Relative Risk-4 (1995), 1–11
Kaplan, J. E., Hanson, D., Dworkin, M. S.. Epidemiology of human immunodeficiency virus-associated opportunistic infections in the United States in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin. Infect. Dis. 30: Suppl. 1 (2000), S5–14CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dankner, W. M., Frederick, T. & Bertolli, J. Infectious complications of pediatric Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection. In W. T. Shearer & I. C. Hanson (eds.), Medical Management of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome in Children. Philadephia: W. B. Saunders Company (2003)
Lindegren, M. L., Byers, R., Bertolli, J. et al. Increasing numbers of adolescents living with perinatal Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection in the United States. In XIII International Conference on Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, Durban, South Africa (2000). [Abstract TuPeC3351]
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Pregnancy in perinatally Human Immunodeficiency Virus-infected adolescents and young adults — Puerto Rico, 2002. MMWR 52: 8 (2003), 149–51
Walker, N., Schwartlander, B. & Bryce, J.Meeting international goals in child survival and Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. Lancet 360: 9329 (2002), 284–89CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cock, K. M., Fowler, M. G., Mercier, E.. Prevention of mother-to-child Human Immunodeficiency Virus transmission in resource-poor countries: translating research into policy and practice. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 283: 9 (2000), 1175–82CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bulterys, M., Fowler, M. G., Shaffer, N.. Role of traditional birth attendants in preventing perinatal transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus. Br. Med. J. 324: 7331 (2002), 222–4CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lackritz, E. M., Shaffer, N. & Luo, C.Prevention of mother-to-child Human Immunodeficiency Virus transmission in the context of a comprehensive Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome agenda in resource-poor countries. J. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 30: 2 (2002), 196–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nolan, M. L., Greenberg, A. E. & Fowler, M. G.A review of clinical trials to prevent mother-to-child Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 transmission in Africa and inform rational intervention strategies. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 16: 15 (2002), 1991–9Google ScholarPubMed
Coovadia, H. & Coutsoudis, A, . Problems and advances in reducing transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 through breastfeeding in developing countries. AID-Science 1 (2001), 4Google Scholar
Laga, M., Schwartlander, B., Pisani, E., Sow, P. S. & Carael, M.To stem Human Immunodeficiency Virus in Africa, prevent transmission to young women. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 15: 7 (2001), 931–4Google ScholarPubMed
Rollins, N. C., Dedicoat, M., Danaviah, S.. Prevalence, incidence, and mother-to-child transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 in rural South Africa. Lancet 360: 9330 (2002), 389CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kanshana, S. & Simonds, R. J.National program for preventing mother-child Human Immunodeficiency Virus transmission in Thailand: successful implementation and lessons learned. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 16: 7 (2002), 953–9Google ScholarPubMed
Mouzin, E., Mercier, E. & Henderson, P. United Nations-sponsored pilot implementation projects on Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission: monitoring of intervention uptake in Africa. In The 3rd Conference on Global Strategies for the Prevention of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Transmission from Mothers to Infants. Kampala, Uganda. (2001). [Abstract 332.]
Bulterys, M., Nolan, M. L., Jamieson, D. J., Dominguez, K. L. & Fowler, M. G.Advances in the prevention of mother-to-child Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 transmission: current issues, future challenges. AID- Science 2 (2002), 1–18Google Scholar
Mofenson, L. M.Tale of two epidemics — the continuing challenge of preventing mother-to-child transmission of human immunodeficiency virus. J. Infect. Dis. 187: 5 (2003), 721–4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buga, G. A., Amoko, D. H. & Ncayiyana, D. J.. Sexual behaviour, contraceptive practice and reproductive health among school adolescents in rural Transkei. S. Afr. Med. J. 86: 5 (1996), 523–7Google ScholarPubMed
Matasha, E., Ntembelea, T., Mayaud, P.. Sexual and reproductive health among primary and secondary school pupils in Mwanza, Tanzania: need for intervention. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Care 10: 5 (1998), 571–82Google ScholarPubMed
Watts, C. & Zimmerman, C.Violence against women: global scope and magnitude. Lancet 359: 9313 (2002), 1232–7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jewkes, R., Levin, J., Mbananga, N. & Bradshaw, D.Rape of girls in South Africa. Lancet 359: 9303 (2002), 319–20CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bulterys, M. & Davis, L. Child abuse and neglect in Africa: a growing concern. In D. B. Jellifee & E. F. P. Jelliffe (eds.), Advances in International Maternal and Child Health. New York: Oxford University Press (1987), pp. 63–9
Vliet, A. & Roosmalen, J.Worldwide prevention of vertical human immunodeficiency virus (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) transmission. Obstet. Gynecol. Surv. 52: 5 (1997), 301–9CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×