Introduction

One key underpinning of the rationale for having 17 SDGs, each with multiple targets and indicators, is that they are designed to be integrated in order to represent the comprehensive or holistic nature of sustainable development. Indeed, this responded to a major criticism of the far more limited nature and scope of the MDGs (see Chapter 1). Ruan (2023) surveys the literature on all 17 SDGs in relation to the complexity of urban systems.

It is certainly true that achievement of all the targets of SDG 11 would have implications for all the other 16 goals. Accordingly, considerable care was taken during the SDG finalization process to avoid conflicts, contradictions and double counting. Hence, when alternatives existed or the full set of draft goals contained evident double counting, indicators were placed in the goal to which they were most central. This sometimes required late rewording or even more substantive refocusing of particular indicators. To give one simple example, Target 11.1 – on adequate, safe and affordable housing – in effect provides the urban component of SDG 1, on eliminating poverty. Had there been an equivalent target in SDG 1, there would have been double counting. Of course, a corollary of this decision is that a gap has arisen, in as much as there is no target on the adequacy of rural housing.

Nevertheless, it was impossible to eliminate all such issues of interactions among the targets and indicators, and wrinkles remain. Inevitably, there are positive complementarities and synergies (as intended) across goals, but also some contradictions or (negative) trade-offs, when progress against one target or indicator in a particular goal implies or might imply a negative impact on another target or indicator in a different goal. Indeed, how national and local governments choose to implement the SDGs, based on perceived relevance, availability of data, ease of reporting, implementational capacity (Saner et al. 2017) and political convenience, might also involve some trade-offs in terms of prioritization in the many situations when it is impracticable to pursue the full set of goals, targets and indicators. Accordingly, Ramani (2022: 2– 3) refers to SDG implementation as a grand challenge of the sort that many governments are now pursuing in order to make step changes in investment.