Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jn8rn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T02:45:23.288Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

7 - The Youngest Victims

Children and Young People Affected by War

from Part II - International Social Justice Issues That Have an Impact on Children and Young People

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 September 2020

Caroline S. Clauss-Ehlers
Affiliation:
Rutgers University, New Jersey
Aradhana Bela Sood
Affiliation:
Virginia Commonwealth University
Mark D. Weist
Affiliation:
University of South Carolina
Get access

Summary

In 1989, the United Nation Convention on the Rights of the Child declared, “[state parties] shall take all feasible measures to ensure protection and care of children who are affected by an armed conflict.” In addition to attempting to secure the welfare of children in armed conflict, the Convention went on to ban the recruitment and deployment of children during armed conflict. Despite the vast majority of sovereign nations signing and ratifying this agreement, this treaty, unfortunately, has not prevented children and youth from witnessing, becoming victims of, or participating in political, ethnic, religious, and cultural violence across the past three decades. This chapter offers an “ecological perspective” on the psychosocial consequences of exposure to the trauma of war-related violence and social disruption.

Type
Chapter
Information
Social Justice for Children and Young People
International Perspectives
, pp. 106 - 122
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

American Psychological Association (APA) (2007). Report of the APA Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls. Retrieved from www.apa.org/pi/women/programs/girls/report-summary.pdf.Google Scholar
American Psychological Association (APA) (2017). APA Handbook of trauma psychology, Volume 1. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Barber, B. K. (2008). Contrasting portraits of war: Youths’ varied experiences with political violence in Bosnia and Palestine. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 32, 298309.Google Scholar
Barber, B. K. (2013). Annual research review: The experience of youth with political conflict – challenging notions of resilience and encouraging research refinement. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 461473. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12056CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bat-Zion, N., & Levy-Shiff, R. (1993). Children in war: Stress and coping reactions under the threat of Scud missile attacks and the effect of proximity. In Leavitt, L & Fox, N (eds.), The psychological effects of war and violence on children (pp. 143161). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Betancourt, T. S., Agnew-Blais, J., Gillman, S. E., Williams, D. R., & Ellis, B. H. (2010). Past horrors, present struggles: The role of stigma in the association between war experiences and psychosocial adjustment among former child soldiers in Sierra Leone. Social Science Medicine, 70, 1726. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.09.038Google Scholar
Betancourt, T. S., Borisova, I., Williams, T. P., et al. (2012). Psychosocial adjustment and mental health in former child soldiers: A systematic review of the literature and recommendations for future research. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 1736, doi:10.1111/j.1469.-7610.2012.02620.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brave Heart, M., & DeBruyn, L. (1998). The American Indian holocaust: Healing historical unresolved grief. American Indian and Alaska Native Mental Health Research, 8, 6082.Google Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by design and nature. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. (1998). The ecology of developmental processes. In Damon, W & Lerner, R. M. (eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Theoretical models of human development (pp. 9931028). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.Google Scholar
Cairns, E. (1996). Children and political violence. Malden, UK: Blackwell Publishing.Google Scholar
Cecchet, S. J., & Thoburn, J. (2014). The psychological experience of child and adolescent sex trafficking in the United States: Trauma and resilience in survivors. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 6, 482493. doi:10.1037/a0035763Google Scholar
Chemtob, C. M., Nomura, Y., Rajendran, K., et al. (2010). Impact of maternal post-traumatic stress disorder and depression following exposure to the September 11 attacks on preschool children’s behavior. Child Development, 81, 11291141. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01458.xGoogle Scholar
Comer, J. S., Fan, B., Duarte, C. S., et al. (2010). Attack-related life disruption and child psychopathology in New York City public schoolchildren 6 months post-9/11. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 39, 460469. doi:10.1080/15374416.2010.486314Google Scholar
Cummings, E. M., Merrilees, C. E., Schermerhorn, A. C., et al. (2011). Longitudinal pathways between political violence and child adjustment: The role of emotional security about the community in Northern Ireland. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39, 213224. doi:10.1007/s10802-010-9457-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cummings, E. M., Merrilees, C. E., Taylor, L. K., & Mondi, C. F. (2017). Developmental and social-ecological perspectives on children, political violence, and armed conflict.Development and Psychopathology, 29, 110. doi:10.1017/S0954579416001061Google Scholar
Danieli, Y. (1998). Introduction: History and conceptual foundations. In Danieli, Y (ed.), International handbook of multigenerational legacies of trauma (pp. 113). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Dekel, R., & Goldblatt, H. (2008). Is there intergenerational transmission of trauma? The case of combat veterans’ children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 78(3), 281289. https://doi-org.ez.lib.jjay.cuny.edu/10.1037/a0013955.Google Scholar
Dohnt, H., & Tiggemann, M. (2006). The contribution of peer and media influences to the development of body satisfaction and self-esteem in young girls: A prospective study. Developmental Psychology, 42, 929936. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.42.5.92Google Scholar
Dubow, E. F., Huesmann, L. R., & Boxer, P. (2009). A social-cognitive-ecological framework for understanding the impact of exposure to persistent ethnic-political violence on children’s psychosocial adjustment. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 12, 113126. doi:10.1007/s10567-009-0050-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Durham, M. G. (2010). The Lolita effect: The media sexualization of young girls and five keys to fixing it. New York: Overlook Press.Google Scholar
Fairbrother, G., Stuber, J., Galea, S., Fleischman, A. R., & Pfefferbaum, B. (2003). Post-traumatic stress reactions in New York City children after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. Ambulatory Pediatrics, 3, 304311. doi:10.1367/1539-4409(2003)003<0304:psriny>2.0.CO;22.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fong, R., & Cardoso, J. B. (2010). Child human trafficking victims: Challenges for the child welfare system. Evaluation and Program Planning, 33, 311316. doi:10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2009.06.018Google Scholar
Furr, J. M., Comer, J. S., Edmunds, J. M., & Kendall, P. C. (2010). Disasters and youth: A meta-analytic examination of posttraumatic stress. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78, 765780. doi:10.1037/a0021482Google Scholar
Garbarino, J. (1994). Raising children in a socially toxic environment. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Gil-Rivas, V., Silver, R. C., Holman, E. A., McIntosh, D. N., & Poulin, M. (2007). Parental response and adolescent adjustment to the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20, 10631068. doi:10.1002/jts.20277CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Granleese, J., Turner, I., & Trew, K. (1989). Teachers’ and boys’ and girls’ perceptions of competence in the primary school: The importance of physical competence. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 59, 3137. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1989.tb03073.xGoogle Scholar
Greenbaum, C. W., Erlich, C., & Toubiana, Y. H. (1993). Settler children and the Gulf War. In Leavitt, L & Fox, N (eds.), The psychological effects of war and violence on children (pp. 109130). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Grusovin, K., Makome, A., Nayak, B., Nicolai, S., & Verhey, B. (2009). Machel study 10-year strategic review: Children and conflict in a changing world. United Nations report. New York: United Nations Children’s Fund.Google Scholar
Gurwitch, R. H., Pfefferbaum, B., & Leftwich, M. J. T. (2002). The impact of terrorism on children: Considerations for a new era. Journal of Trauma Practice, 1, 101124. doi:10.1300/J189v01n03_06CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hagan, J. F. (2005). Psychosocial implications of disaster or terrorism on children: A guide for the pediatrician. Pediatrics, 116, 787795. doi:10.1542/peds.2005-1498Google Scholar
Hanna-Attisha, M., LaChance, J., Sadler, R. C., & Schnepp, A. C. (2016). Elevated blood lead levels in children associated with the Flint drinking water crisis: A spatial analysis of risk and public health response. American Journal of Public Health, 106, 283290. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2015.303003Google Scholar
Hoven, C. W., Duarte, C. S., Lucas, C. P., et al. (2005). Psychopathology among New York City public school children 6 months after September 11. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 545551. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.5.545Google Scholar
Joshi, P. T., & O’Donnell, D. A. (2003). Consequences of child exposure to war and terrorism. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 6, 275292. doi:1096-4037/03/1200-0275/0Google Scholar
Jussim, L., & Harber, K. D. (2005). Teacher expectations and self-fulfilling prophecies: Knowns and unknowns, resolved and unresolved controversies. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9, 131155. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0902_3Google Scholar
Laufer, A., & Solomon, Z. (2006). Post-traumatic symptoms and post-traumatic growth among Israeli youth exposed to terror incidents. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 25(4), 429447. doi:10.1521/jscp.2006.25.4.429CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lengua, L. J., Long, A. C., Smith, K. I., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2005). Pre‐attack symptomatology and temperament as predictors of children’s responses to the September 11 terrorist attacks. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 631645. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00378.xGoogle Scholar
Macksoud, M. S., & Aber, J. L. (1996). The war experiences and psychosocial development of children in Lebanon. Child Development, 67, 7088.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marshall, M. G., & Elzinga-Marshall, G. (2017). Global report 2017: Conflict, governance and state fragility. Center for Systemic Peace. Retrieved from www.systemicpeace.org/vlibrary/GlobalReport2017.pdf.Google Scholar
Masten, A. S., & Narayan, A. J. (2012). Child development in the context of disaster, war, and terrorism: Pathways of risk and resilience. Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 227257. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100356Google Scholar
McClanahan, S. F., McClelland, G. M., Abram, K. M., & Teplin, L. A. (1999). Pathways into prostitution among female jail detainees and their implications for mental health services. Psychiatric Services, 50, 16061613. doi:10.1176/ps.50.12.1606Google Scholar
McWhirter, L. (1984). Is getting caught in a riot more stressful for children than seeing a scary film or moving to a new school? Paper presented at the annual conference of the Northern Irish Branch of the BPS, Port Ballintrae, Northern Ireland.Google Scholar
Merrilees, C. E., Cairns, E., Taylor, L. K., et al. (2013). Social identity and youth aggressive and delinquent behaviors in a context of political violence. Political Psychology, 34, 695711. doi:10.1111/pops.12030Google Scholar
Miller, K. E., & Rasmussen, A. (2010). War exposure, daily stressors, and mental health in conflict and post-conflict settings: Bridging the divide between trauma-focused and psychosocial frameworks. Social Science & Medicine, 70, 716. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.09.029Google Scholar
Miller-Graff, L., & Cummings, E. M. (2017). The Israeli–Palestinian conflict: Effects on youth adjustment, available interventions, and future research directions. Developmental Review, 43, 147. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2016.10.001Google Scholar
Murnen, S. K., Smolak, L., Mills, J. A., & Good, L. (2003). Thin, sexy women and strong, muscular men: Grade-school children’s responses to objectified images of women and men. Sex Roles, 49, 427437. doi:10.1023/A:1025868320206Google Scholar
Neblett, E. W., White, R. L., Ford, K. R., et al. (2008). Patterns of racial socialization and psychological adjustment: Can parental communications about race reduce the impact of racial discrimination? Journal of Research on Adolescence, 18(3), 477515.Google Scholar
Otto, M. W., Henin, A., Hirshfeld-Becker, D. R., et al. (2007). Post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms following media exposure to tragic events: Impact of 9/11 on children at risk for anxiety disorders. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 21, 888902. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2006.10.008Google Scholar
Peek, L., & Fothergill, A. (2009). Using focus groups: Lessons from studying daycare centers, 9/11, and Hurricane Katrina. Qualitative Research, 9, 3159. doi:10.1177/1468794108098029Google Scholar
Pew Research Center (2015). Women and leadership: Public says women are equally qualified, but barriers persist. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from www.pewsocialtrends.org/2015/01/14/women-and-leadership/.Google Scholar
Pfefferbaum, B., Nixon, S. J., Tivis, R. D., et al. (2001). Television exposure in children after a terrorist incident. Psychiatry, 64, 202211. doi:10.1521/psyc.64.3.202.18462Google Scholar
Phillips, D., Featherman, D. L., & Liu, J. (2004). Children as an evocative influence on adults’ reactions to terrorism. Applied Developmental Science, 8, 195210. doi:10.1207/s1532480xads0804_3Google Scholar
Punamäki, R. L. (1996). Can ideological commitment protect children’s psychosocial well‐being in situations of political violence? Child Development, 67, 5569. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01719.xGoogle Scholar
Punamäki, R., Qouta, S., & El-Sarraj, E. (2001). Resiliency factors predicting adjustment after political violence among Palestinian children. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 25, 256267.Google Scholar
Qouta, S., Punamäki, R. L., & El-Sarraj, E. (2008). Child development and family mental health in war and military violence: The Palestinian experience. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 32, 310321. doi:10/1177/0165025408090973CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rafferty, Y. (2008). The impact of trafficking on children: Psychological and social policy perspectives. Child Development Perspectives, 2, 1318. doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2008.00035.xGoogle Scholar
Rafferty, Y. (2013). Child trafficking and commercial sexual exploitation: A review of promising prevention policies and programs. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 83, 559575. doi:10.1111/ajop.12056Google Scholar
Rosenheck, R., & Fontana, A. (1998). Warrior fathers and warrior sons: Intergenerational aspects of trauma. In Danieli, Y (ed.), International handbook of multigenerational legacies of trauma (pp. 225242). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Rowland-Klein, D., & Dunlop, R. (1998). The transmission of trauma across generations: Identification with parental trauma in children of Holocaust survivors. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 32(3), 358369.Google Scholar
Sameroff, A. J., Bartko, W. T., Baldwin, A., Baldwin, C., & Seifer, R. (1998). Family and social influences on the development of child competence. In Lewis, M & Feiring, C (eds.), Families, risk, and competence (pp. 161185). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Schiff, M., & Fang, L. (2014). Adolescent substance use in Israel: The roles of exposure to political traumas and posttraumatic stress symptoms. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 28, 453463.Google Scholar
Schiff, M., Pat-Horenczyk, R., Benbenishty, R., et al. (2012). High school students’ posttraumatic symptoms, substance abuse and involvement in violence in the aftermath of war. Social Science & Medicine, 75, 13211328. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.05.010Google Scholar
Schiff, M., Zweig, H. H., Benbenishty, R., & Hasin, D. S. (2007). Exposure to terrorism and Israeli youths’ cigarette, alcohol, and cannabis use. American Journal of Public Health, 97, 18521858. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2006.090514Google Scholar
Schuster, M. A., Stein, B. D., Jaycox, L. H., et al. (2001). A national survey of stress reactions after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. New England Journal of Medicine, 345, 15071512. doi:10.1056/NEJM200111153452024Google Scholar
Schwartz, S., Dohrenwend, B., & Levav, I. (1994). Nongenetic familial transmission of psychiatric disorders? Evidence from children of Holocaust survivors. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 35, 385402. doi:jstor.org/stable/2137216Google Scholar
Shaw, J. A. (2003). Children exposed to war/terrorism. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 6, 237246.Google Scholar
Slone, M., Kaminer, D., & Durrheim, K. (2002). The contributions of political life events to psychological distress among South African adolescents. Political Psychology, 21(3), 465487.Google Scholar
Slone, M., Lavi, I., Ozer, E. J., & Pollak, A. (2017). The Israeli–Palestinian conflict: Meta-analysis of exposure and outcome relations for children of the region. Children and Youth Services Review, 74, 5061. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.01.019Google Scholar
Starr, C. R., & Ferguson, G. M. (2012). Sexy dolls, sexy grade-schoolers? Media & maternal influences on young girls’ self-sexualization, Sex Roles, 67(463), 463476. doi:10.1007/s11199-012-0183-xGoogle Scholar
Stuber, J., Fairbrother, G., Galea, S., et al. (2002). Determinants of counseling for children in Manhattan after the September 11 attacks. Psychiatric Services, 53, 815822. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.53.7.815CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Szente, J. (2016). Assisting children caught in disasters: Resources and suggestions for practitioners. Early Childhood Education Journal, 44, 201207. doi:10.1007/s10643-015-0709-2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thabet, A. A., & Thabet, S. (2015). Trauma, PTSD, anxiety, and resilience in Palestinian children in the Gaza strip. British Journal of Education, Society & Behavioural Science, 11, 113. doi:10.973/BJESBS/2015/19101Google Scholar
Tolin, D. F., & Foa, E. B. (2006). Sex differences in trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder: A quantitative review of 25 years of research. Psychological Bulletin, 132(6), 959992. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.6.959Google Scholar
Twill, S. E., Green, D. M., & Traylor, A. (2010). A descriptive study on sexually exploited children in residential treatment. Child & Youth Care Forum, 39, 187199. doi:10.1007/s10566-010-9098-2Google Scholar
UNICEF (2013). Minimum standards for child protection in humanitarian action. UNICEF Child Protection Working Group. Retrieved from www.cpaor.net/sites/default/files/cp/CP-Minimum-Standards-English-2013.pdf.Google Scholar
UNICEF (2014). Girls’ education and gender equality. Retrieved from www.unicef.org/education/bege_70640.html.Google Scholar
UNICEF (2016). The state of the world’s children 2016: A fair chance for every child. Retrieved from www.unicef.org/publications/index_91711.html.Google Scholar
Vernberg, E. M., La Greca, A. M., Silverman, W. K., & Prinstein, M. J. (1996). Prediction of posttraumatic stress symptoms in children after Hurricane Andrew. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105, 237248. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.105.2.237Google Scholar
Wilson, A. C., Lengua, L. J., Meltzoff, A. N., & Smith, K. A. (2010). Parenting and temperament prior to September 11, 2001, and parenting specific to 9/11 as predictors of children’s posttraumatic stress symptoms following 9/11. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 39(4), 445459. doi:10.1080/15374416.2010.486317Google Scholar
Wilson, B., & Butler, L. D. (2014). Running a gauntlet: A review of victimization and violence in the pre-entry, post-entry, and peri-/post- exit periods of commercial sexual exploitation. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 6, 494504. doi:10.1037/a0032977Google Scholar
Wright, M. O. D., Masten, A. S., & Narayan, A. J. (2013). Resilience processes in development: Four waves of research on positive adaptation in the context of adversity. In Goldstein, S & Brooks, R (eds.), Handbook of resilience in children (pp. 1537). Boston, MA: Springer.Google Scholar
Yehuda, R. (1999). Biological factors associated with susceptibility to posttraumatic stress disorder. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 44, 3439. doi:10.1177/070674379904400104Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×