Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-dh8gc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-04T21:30:17.024Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

9 - Empowering Zoo Animals

from Part II - Captive Care and Management

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 December 2018

By
Stephanie M. Allard  and
Meredith J. Bashaw
Edited by
Allison B. Kaufman ,
Meredith J. Bashaw  and
Terry L. Maple
Allison B. Kaufman
Affiliation:
University of Connecticut
Meredith J. Bashaw
Affiliation:
Franklin and Marshall College, Pennsylvania
Terry L. Maple
Affiliation:
Jacksonville Zoo and Gardens
Get access

Summary

Modern zoos and aquariums have evolved from places of entertainment only to organizations engaged in research, conservation, and education. This evolution has included an emphasis on the welfare of individual animals and investment in meeting the needs of the animals. One of the ways in which zoos are striving to improve animal welfare is through the provision of choice and control over aspects of the animals’ environments. While choice and control are often lumped together, they mean distinct things and have different implications for animal care. In this chapter, we aim to differentiate choice from control, explain why each is important for promoting animal welfare, illustrate some ways good zoos currently apply these ideas to improve animal experiences, and signpost directions for future growth.
Type
Chapter
Information
Scientific Foundations of Zoos and Aquariums
Their Role in Conservation and Research
 , pp. 241 - 273
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Allard, S. M., Fuller, G., & Hamilton, J. (2016). The roles of time and space in captive animal welfare. In: Weaver, J. (Ed.), Animal Welfare: Assessments, Challenges and Improvement Strategies (pp. 1–54). New York: Nova Science Publishers.Google Scholar
Anderson, U. S., Benne, M., Bloomsmith, M. A., & Maple, T. L. (2002). Retreat space and human visitor density moderate undesirable behavior in petting zoo animals. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 5(2), 125–137.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ashokan, A., Sivasubramanian, M., & Mitra, R. (2016). Seeding stress resilience through inoculation. Neural Plasticity, 2016, 492808.Google Scholar
Baird, B. A., Kuhar, C. W., Lukas, K. E., Amendolagine, L. A., Fuller, G. A., Nemet, J., … Schook, M. W. (2016). Program animal welfare: Using behavioral and physiological measures to assess the well-being of animals used for education programs in zoos. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 176, 150–162.Google Scholar
Bashaw, M. J. (in press). Creating a giraffic park: Design and management ideas for optimal giraffe wellness. In: Segura, V. D., Forthman, D. L., & Maple, T. L. (Eds.), Wellness for Elephants. Fernandina Beach, FL: Red Leaf Press.Google Scholar
Bashaw, M. J., Bloomsmith, M. A., Maple, T. L., & Bercovitch, F. B. (2007). The structure of social relationships among captive female giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 121(1), 46–53.Google Scholar
Bassett, L., & Buchanan-Smith, H. M. (2007). Effects of predictability on the welfare of captive animals. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 102(3), 223–245.Google Scholar
Bateson, M. (2004). Mechanisms of decision-making and the interpretation of choice tests. Animal Welfare, 13, S115–S120.Google Scholar
Behringer, V., Stevens, J. M., Hohmann, G., Möstl, E., Selzer, D., & Deschner, T. (2014). Testing the effect of medical positive reinforcement training on salivary cortisol levels in bonobos and orangutans. PLoS ONE, 9, e108664.Google Scholar
Bloomfield, R. C., Gillespie, G. R., Kerswell, K. J., Butler, K. L., & Hemsworth, P. H. (2015). Effect of partial covering of the visitor viewing area window on positioning and orientation of zoo orangutans: A preference test. Zoo Biology, 34(3), 223–229.Google Scholar
Bloomsmith, M. A., Laule, G. E., Alford, P. L., & Thurston, R. H. (1994). Using training to moderate chimpanzee aggression during feeding. Zoo Biology, 13(6), 557–566.Google Scholar
Buchanan-Smith, H. M., & Badihi, I. (2012). The psychology of control: Effects of control over supplementary light on welfare of marmosets. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 137(3), 166–174.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, F. E. (2011). Space to choose: Network analysis of social preferences in a captive chimpanzee community, and implications for management. American Journal of Primatology, 73(8), 748–757.Google Scholar
Clark, F. E., Davies, S. L., Madigan, A. W., Warner, A. J., & Kuczaj, S. A. (2013). Cognitive enrichment for bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus): Evaluation of a novel underwater maze device. Zoo Biology, 32(6), 608–619.Google Scholar
Clark, F. E., & Smith, L. J. (2013). Effect of a cognitive challenge device containing food and non-food rewards on chimpanzee well-being. American Journal of Primatology, 75(8), 807–816.Google Scholar
Clay, A. W., Bloomsmith, M. A., Marr, M. J., & Maple, T. L. (2009). Systematic investigation of the stability of food preferences in captive orangutans: Implications for positive reinforcement training. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 12(4), 306–313.Google Scholar
Clay, A. W., Perdue, B. M., Gaalema, D. E., Dolins, F. L., & Bloomsmith, M. A. (2011). The use of technology to enhance zoological parks. Zoo Biology, 30(5), 487–497.Google Scholar
Clayton, J. B., & Glander, K. E. (2011). Dietary choices by four captive slender lorises (Loris tardigradus) when presented with various insect life stages. Zoo biology, 30(2), 189–198.Google Scholar
Coe, J. (2006). Naturalistic enrichment. Proceedings of the Australasian Regional Association of Zoological Parks and Aquaria Conference. Retrieved from www.zoolex.org/publication/coe/NaturalisticEnrichment2006.pdf.Google Scholar
Coe, J. C., & Mendez, R. (2005). The unzoo alternative. Proceedings of the Australasian Regional Association of Zoological Parks and Aquaria Conference. Retrieved from www.zoolex.org/publication/coe/Unzoo150805.pdf.Google Scholar
Coe, J. C., Scott, D., & Lukas, K. E. (2009). Facility design for bachelor gorilla groups. Zoo Biology, 28(2), 144–162.Google Scholar
Coleman, K., Pranger, L., Maier, A., Lambeth, S. P., Perlman, J. E., Thiele, E., & Schapiro, S. J. (2008). Training rhesus macaques for venipuncture using positive reinforcement techniques: A comparison with chimpanzees. Journal of the American Association for Laboratory Animal Science, 47(1), 37–41.Google Scholar
Cox, M., Gaglione, E., Prowten, P., & Noonan, M. (1996). Food preferences communicated via symbol discrimination by a California sea lion (Zalophus californianus). Aquatic Mammals, 22, 3–10.Google Scholar
Crawford, E. (2012). An elephant never forgets … the right microclimate: Thermal comfort and microclimatic design of Asian elephant zoo enclosures (unpublished doctoral dissertation). Guelph, Ontario: The University of Guelph,.Google Scholar
da Silva Vasconcellos, A., Adania, C. H., & Ades, C. (2012). Contrafreeloading in maned wolves: Implications for their management and welfare. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 140(1), 85–91.Google Scholar
Dawkins, M. S. (1990). From an animal’s point of view: Motivation, fitness, and animal welfare. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 13, 1–9.Google Scholar
Deamer, K. (2017). Dutch zoo tests ‘Tinder for Orangutans’ mating program. Live Science, Retrieved from www.livescience.com/57746-tinder-for-orangutans-mating-program.html.Google Scholar
Desmond, T., & Laule, G. (1991). Protected contact elephant training. In Proceedings of the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums Annual Conference, San Diego, CA. Retrieved from http://activeenvironments.org/pdf/PC_Elephant_Training.pdf.Google Scholar
Dettmer, E. L., Phillips, K. A., Rager, D. R., Bernstein, I. S., & Fragaszy, D. M. (1996). Behavioral and cortisol responses to repeated capture and venipuncture in Cebus apella. American Journal of Primatology, 38(4), 357–362.Google Scholar
Dorey, N. R., Mehrkam, L. R., & Tacey, J. (2015). A method to assess relative preference for training and environmental enrichment in captive wolves (Canis lupus and Canis lupus arctos). Zoo Biology, 34(6), 513–517.Google Scholar
Dorman, N., & Bourne, D. C. (2010). Canids and ursids in mixed‐species exhibits. International Zoo Yearbook, 44(1), 75–86.Google Scholar
Duncan, L. M., & Pillay, N. (2013). Shade as a thermoregulatory resource for captive chimpanzees. Journal of Thermal Biology, 38(4), 169–177.Google Scholar
Fàbregas, M. C., Guillén-Salazar, F., & Garcés-Narro, C. (2012). Do naturalistic enclosures provide suitable environments for zoo animals? Zoo Biology, 31, 362–373.Google Scholar
Fernandez, E. J., Dorey, N., & Rosales-Ruiz, J. (2004). A two-choice preference assessment with five cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus). Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 7(3), 163–169.Google Scholar
Gaalema, D. E., Perdue, B. M., & Kelling, A. S. (2011). Food preference, keeper ratings, and reinforcer effectiveness in exotic animals: The value of systematic testing. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 14(1), 33–41.Google Scholar
Gaengler, H., & Clum, N. (2015). Investigating the impact of large carcass feeding on the behavior of captive Andean condors (Vultur gryphus) and its perception by zoo visitors. Zoo Biology, 34(2), 118–129.Google Scholar
Gibson, A. R., Smucny, D. A., & Kollar, J. (1989). The effects of feeding and ecdysis on temperature selection by young garter snakes in a simple thermal mosaic. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 67, 19–23.Google Scholar
Goodkin, F. (1976). Rats learn the relationship between responding and environmental events: An expansion of the learned helplessness hypothesis. Learning and Motivation, 7(3), 382–393.Google Scholar
Gregory, T. (2017). Bird bachelorette research may yield crucial answers to zoo animals’ survival. Chicago Tribune. Retrieved from www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-bird-breeding-research-the-bachelorette-met-20170209-story.html.Google Scholar
Gresswell, C., & Goodman, G. (2011). Case study: Training a chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) to use a nebulizer to aid the treatment of airsacculitis. Zoo biology, 30(5), 570–578.Google Scholar
Halloy, J., Sempo, G., Caprari, G., Rivault, C., Asadpour, M., Tâche, F., … Detrain, C. (2007). Social integration of robots into groups of cockroaches to control self-organized choices. Science, 318(5853), 1155–1158.Google Scholar
Hansen, S. W., & Jensen, M. B. (2006). Quantitative evaluation of the motivation to access a running wheel or a water bath in farm mink. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 98(1), 127–144.Google Scholar
Hardie, S. M., & Buchanan-Smith, H. M. (2000). Responses of captive single-and mixed-species groups of Saguinus to novel nonthreatening objects. International Journal of Primatology, 21(4), 629–648.Google Scholar
Herrelko, E. S., Vick, S.-J., & Buchanan-Smith, H. M. (2012). Cognitive research in zoo-housed chimpanzees: Influence of personality and impact on welfare. American Journal of Primatology, 74(9), 828–840.Google Scholar
Hogan, L. A., Johnston, S. D., Lisle, A. T., Keeley, T., Wong, P., Nicolson, V., … Phillips, C. J. (2011). Behavioural and physiological responses of captive wombats (Lasiorhinus latifrons) to regular handling by humans. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 134(3), 217–228.Google Scholar
Hosey, G. (2008). A preliminary model of human–animal relationships in the zoo. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 109(2), 105–127.Google Scholar
Hutchinson, J. (2005). Is more choice always desirable? Evidence and arguments from leks, food selection, and environmental enrichment. Biological Reviews, 80(1), 73–92.Google Scholar
Huys, Q. J., & Dayan, P. (2009). A Bayesian formulation of behavioral control. Cognition, 113(3), 314–328.Google Scholar
Hyson, J. (2000). Jungles of Eden: The design of American zoos. In Conan, M. (Ed.), Environmentalism in Landscape Architecture (Vol. 22, pp. 23–44). Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collections.Google Scholar
Inglis, I. R., Forkman, B., & Lazarus, J. (1997). Free food or earned food? A review and fuzzy model of contrafreeloading. Animal Behaviour, 53(6), 1171–1191.Google Scholar
Jenny, S., & Schmid, H. (2002). Effect of feeding boxes on the behavior of stereotyping Amur tigers (Panthera tigris altaica) in the Zurich Zoo, Zurich, Switzerland. Zoo Biology, 21(6), 573–584.Google Scholar
Jens, W., Mager‐Melicharek, C. A. X., & Rietkerk, F. E. (2012). Free‐ranging New World primates in zoos: Cebids at Apenheul. International Zoo Yearbook, 46, 137–149.Google Scholar
Kelling, A. S., & Gaalema, D. E. (2011). Postoccupancy evaluations in zoological settings. Zoo Biology, 30(6), 597–610.Google Scholar
Kilgour, R. J., Faure, P. A., & Brigham, R. M. (2013). Evidence of social preferences in big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus). Canadian Journal of Zoology, 91(10), 756–760.Google Scholar
Kurtycz, L. M., Wagner, K. E., & Ross, S. R. (2014). The choice to access outdoor areas affects the behavior of great apes. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 17(3), 185–197.Google Scholar
Langman, V. A., Langman, S. L., & Ellifrit, N. (2015). Seasonal acclimatization determined by non‐invasive measurements of coat insulation. Zoo Biology, 34(4), 368–373.Google Scholar
Langman, V. A., & Maloiy, G. M. O. (1989). Passive obligatory heterothermy of the giraffe. Journal of Physiology (UK), 415, 89.Google Scholar
Laule, G. E., Bloomsmith, M. A., & Schapiro, S. J. (2003). The use of positive reinforcement training techniques to enhance the care, management, and welfare of primates in the laboratory. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 6(3), 163–173.Google Scholar
Laule, G., & Whittaker, M. (2007) Enhancing nonhuman primate care and welfare through the use of positive reinforcement training. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 10, 31–38.Google Scholar
Lawson, D. P., Ogden, J., & Snyder, R. J. (2008). Maximizing the contribution of science in zoos and aquariums: Organizational models and perceptions. Zoo Biology, 27(6), 458–469.Google Scholar
Macdonald, C., & Whiten, A. (2011). The “Living Links to Human Evolution” Research Centre in Edinburgh Zoo: A new endeavour in collaboration. International Zoo Yearbook, 45(1), 7–17.Google Scholar
Macri, A. M., & Patterson-Kane, E. (2011). Behavioural analysis of solitary versus socially housed snow leopards (Panthera uncia), with the provision of simulated social contact. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 130(3), 115–123.Google Scholar
Maier, S. F. (1984). Learned helplessness and animal models of depression. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 8(3), 435–446.Google Scholar
Maple, T. L. (2008). Empirical zoo: Opportunities and challenges to a scientific zoo biology. Zoo Biology, 27(6), 431–435.Google Scholar
Maple, T. L., & Finlay, T. W. (1987). Post-occupancy evaluation in the zoo. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 18(1), 5–18.Google Scholar
Martin, M. S., & Shepherdson, D. J. (2012). Role of familiarity and preference in reproductive success in ex situ breeding programs. Conservation Biology, 26(4), 649–656.Google Scholar
Mason, G. J., Cooper, J., & Clarebrough, C. (2001). Frustrations of fur-farmed mink. Nature, 410, 35–36.Google Scholar
McGowan, R. T., Rehn, T., Norling, Y., & Keeling, L. J. (2014). Positive affect and learning: Exploring the “eureka effect” in dogs. Animal Cognition, 17(3), 577–587.Google Scholar
Meehan, C. L., & Mench, J. A. (2007). The challenge of challenge: Can problem solving opportunities enhance animal welfare? Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 102(3), 246–261.Google Scholar
Melfi, V. A. (2009). There are big gaps in our knowledge, and thus approach, to zoo animal welfare: A case for evidence‐based zoo animal management. Zoo Biology, 28(6), 574–588.Google Scholar
Mellen, J., & Sevenich MacPhee, M. (2001). Philosophy of environmental enrichment: Past, present, and future. Zoo Biology, 20(3), 211–226.Google Scholar
Mellor, D. J., Hunt, S., & Gusset, M. (2015). Caring for Wildlife: The World Zoo and Aquarium Animal Welfare Strategy. Gland: WAZA Executive Office.Google Scholar
Owen, M. A., Swaisgood, R. R., Czekala, N. M., & Lindburg, D. G. (2005). Enclosure choice and well-being in giant pandas: Is it all about control? Zoo Biology, 24(5), 475–481.Google Scholar
Perdue, B. M., Clay, A. W., Gaalema, D. E., Maple, T. L., & Stoinski, T. S. (2012). Technology at the zoo: The influence of a touchscreen computer on orangutans and zoo visitors. Zoo Biology, 31(1), 27–39.Google Scholar
Perdue, B. M., Evans, T. A., Washburn, D. A., Rumbaugh, D. M., & Beran, M. J. (2014). Do monkeys choose to choose? Learning & Behavior, 42(2), 164–175.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pomerantz, O., & Terkel, J. (2009). Effects of positive reinforcement training techniques on the psychological welfare of zoo-housed chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). American Journal of Primatology, 71(8), 687–695.Google Scholar
Price, E. C., Wormell, D., Brayshaw, M., Furrer, S., Heer, T., & Steinmetz, H. W. (2012). Managing free-ranging callitrichids in zoos. International Zoo Yearbook, 46, 123–136.Google Scholar
Raffaele, P. (2006). Speaking bonobo. Smithsonian Magazine, 37, 74.Google Scholar
Reisberg, S. E., Grove, J., & Bashaw, M. J. (2010). Environmental enrichment for North American river otters. Animal Keeper’s Forum, 37, 340–344.Google Scholar
Ross, S. R. (2006). Issues of choice and control in the behaviour of a pair of captive polar bears (Ursus maritimus). Behavioural Processes, 73(1), 117–120.Google Scholar
Ross, S. R., Schapiro, S. J., Hau, J., & Lukas, K. E. (2009). Space use as an indicator of enclosure appropriateness: A novel measure of captive animal welfare. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 121(1), 42–50.Google Scholar
Schapiro, S. J., Bloomsmith, M. A., & Laule, G. E. (2003). Positive reinforcement training as a technique to alter nonhuman primate behavior: Quantitative assessments of effectiveness. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 6(3), 175–187.Google Scholar
Sherwen, S. L., Harvey, T. J., Magrath, M. J., Butler, K. L., Fanson, K. V., & Hemsworth, P. H. (2015). Effects of visual contact with zoo visitors on black-capped capuchin welfare. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 167, 65–73.Google Scholar
Soltis, J., Orban, D., Mellen, J., & Perkins, L. (2016). Sound at the zoo. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Association of Zoos and Aquariums, San Diego, California.Google Scholar
Sullivan, M., Lawrence, C., & Blache, D. (2016). Why did the fish cross the tank? Objectively measuring the value of enrichment for captive fish. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 174, 181–188.Google Scholar
Tarou, L. R., Kuhar, C. W., Adcock, D., Bloomsmith, M. A., & Maple, T. L. (2004). Computer-assisted enrichment for zoo-housed orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus). Animal Welfare, 13(4), 445–453.Google Scholar
Teodorescu, K., & Erev, I. (2014). Learned helplessness and learned prevalence: Exploring the causal relations among perceived controllability, reward prevalence, and exploration. Psychological Science, 25(10), 1861–1869.Google Scholar
US Fish and Wildlife Service, Black-footed Ferret Recovery Program (2017). Black-Footed Ferret Managed Care Operations Manual. Washington, DC: US Fish and Wildlife Service.Google Scholar
Veasey, J., & Hammer, G. (2010). Managing captive mammals in mixed-species communities. In: Kleiman, D. G., Thompson, K. V., & Baer, C. K. (Eds.), Wild Mammals in Captivity: Principles and Techniques (2nd ed., pp. 151–161). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Wark, J. D., Kuhar, C. W., & Lukas, K. E. (2014). Behavioral thermoregulation in a group of zoo-housed colobus monkeys (Colobus guereza). Zoo Biology, 33(4), 257–266.Google Scholar
Warwick, C., Frye, F. L., & Murphy, J. B. (Eds.) (1995). Health and Welfare of Captive Reptiles. London: Chapman & Hall.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whitham, J. C., & Wielebnowski, N. (2013). New directions for zoo animal welfare science. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 147(3), 247–260.Google Scholar
Whittaker, M., & Laule, G. (2012). Training techniques to enhance the care and welfare of nonhuman primates. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice, 15(3), 445–454.Google Scholar
Wilson, S. F. (1982). Environmental influences on the activity of captive apes. Zoo Biology, 1(3), 201–209.Google Scholar
Wilson, M. L., Perdue, B. M., Bloomsmith, M. A., & Maple, T. L. (2015). Rates of reinforcement and measures of compliance in free and protected contact elephant management systems. Zoo Biology, 34(5), 431–437.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Young, T., Finegan, E., & Brown, R. D. (2013). Effects of summer microclimates on behavior of lions and tigers in zoos. International Journal of Biometeorology, 57(3), 381–390.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×