Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gxg78 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T18:20:39.914Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 10 - The Importance of a Positive School Climate in Addressing Youth Retaliation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 July 2021

By
Allison Ann Payne  and
Denise Wilson
Edited by
Holly Recchia  and
Cecilia Wainryb
Holly Recchia
Affiliation:
Concordia University, Montréal
Cecilia Wainryb
Affiliation:
University of Utah
Get access

Summary

Authoritarian and retributive discipline policies that characterize the crime control model of school discipline feed into a cycle of harm whereby aggressive behaviors, including retribution and revenge, are likely to be reinforced as normative responses to an unjust and unequal environment. These policies are ineffective at reducing violence and delinquency, can result in poor academic outcomes, are disproportionately applied, and have negative impacts on the school climate. They also fail to capture the importance of teaching students the social and behavioral skills that are associated with better academic and behavioral outcomes. By contrast, the school climate is an important malleable component that can have positive impacts on a variety of outcomes. Whole school approaches to positive discipline such as Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports and Restorative Justice are far more promising policies to improving the school climate and associated student outcomes, including retaliatory behavior.

Keywords

School disciplineschool climaterevengeretaliationdelinquencypreventioninterventionrestorative justicePBIS
Type
Chapter
Information
Revenge across Childhood and Adolescence , pp. 247 - 270
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2021

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Acosta, J., Chinman, M., Ebener, P., Malone, P. S., Phillips, A., & Wilks, A. (2019). Evaluation of a whole-school change intervention: Findings from a two-year cluster-randomized trial of the restorative practices intervention. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 48(5), 876–890. doi: 10.1007/s10964–019-01013-2Google Scholar
Aldridge, J., & Ala’l, K. (2013). Assessing students’ views of school climate: Developing and validating the What’s Happening In This School? (WHITS) questionnaire. Improving Schools, 16(1), 47–66. doi: 10.1177/1365480212473680CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anyon, Y., Jenson, J., Altschul, I., Farrar, J., McQueen, J., Greer, E., … Simmons, J. (2014). The persistent effect of race and the promise of alternatives to suspension in school discipline outcomes. Children and Youth Services Review, 44, 379–386. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.06.025Google Scholar
Austin, J., & Irwin, J. (2001). It’s about time: America’s imprisonment binge (3rd ed.). Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Wadsworth/Thomson.Google Scholar
Bear, G. G., Yang, C., & Pasipanodya, E. (2015). Assessing school climate: Validation of a brief measure of the perceptions of parents. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 33(2), 115–129. doi: 10.1177/0734282914545748Google Scholar
Bradshaw, C. P., Waasdorp, T. E., Debnam, K. J., & Johnson, S. L. (2014). Measuring school climate in high schools: A focus on safety, engagement, and the environment. Journal of School Health, 84(9), 593–604. doi: 10.1111/josh.12186Google Scholar
Brooks, K., Schiraldi, V., & Zeidenberg, J. (2000). School house hype: Two years later. Policy Report. San Francisco, CA: Center on Juvenile and Criminal Justice. Retrieved September 23, 2020, from: www.cjcj.org/uploads/cjcj/documents/schoolhouse.pdfGoogle Scholar
Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS). (2019). www.pbis.org/Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2019). School violence: Prevention. Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services, CDC. Retrieved September 23, 2020, from: www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/youthviolence/schoolviolence/prevention.htmlGoogle Scholar
Cohen, J., & Geier, V. K. (2010). School climate research summary: January 2010. School Climate Brief, 1, 1–6. Retrieved September 23, 2020, from: www.schoolclimate.org/climate/schoolclimatebriefs.phpGoogle Scholar
Colombi, G., & Osher, D. (2015). Advancing school discipline reform. Education Leaders Report, 1(2), 1–24. National Association of State Boards of Education. Retrieved September 23, 2020, from: www.air.org/sites/default/files/downloads/report/Advancing-School-Discipline-Reform-Sept-2015.pdfGoogle Scholar
Cook, P. J., Gottfredson, D. C., & Na, C. (2010). School crime control and prevention. Crime and Justice, 39(1), 313–440. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.1368292Google Scholar
Currie, E. (1998). Crime and punishment in America. New York: Henry Holt.Google Scholar
Darling-Hammond, S., Fronius, T. A., Sutherland, H., Guckenburg, S., Petrosino, A., & Hurley, N. (2020). Effectiveness of restorative justice in US K–12 Schools: A review of quantitative research. Contemporary School Psychology, 24, 295–308. doi: 10.1007/s40688–020-00290-0Google Scholar
David-Ferdon, C., Vivolo-Kantor, A. M., Dahlberg, L. L., Marshall, K. J., Rainford, N., & Hall, J. E. (2016). A comprehensive technical package for the prevention of youth violence and associated risk behaviors. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved September 23, 2020, from: www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/yv-technicalpackage.pdfGoogle Scholar
Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education: An introduction to the philosophy of education. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Dolan, L. J., Kellam, S. G., Brown, C. H., Werthamer-Larsson, L., Rebok, G. W., Mayer, L. S., … Wheeler, L. (1993). The short-term impact of two classroom-based preventive interventions on aggressive and shy behaviors and poor achievement. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 14(3), 317–345. doi: 10.1016/0193-3973(93)90013-LCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eccles, J. S., & Roeser, R. W. (2011). School and community influences on human development. In Bornstein, M. H. & Lam, M. E. (Eds.), Development science: An advanced textbook. New York: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Evans, K. R., & Lester, J. N. (2012). Zero tolerance: Moving the conversation forward. Intervention in School and Clinic, 48(2), 108–114. doi: 10.1177/1053451212449735CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foney, D. M., & Cunningham, M. (2002). Why do good kids do bad things? Considering multiple contexts in the study of antisocial fighting behaviors in African American urban youth. Journal of Negro Education, 71, 143–157. doi: 10.2307/3211233Google Scholar
Frey, K. S., Newman, J. B., & Onyewuenyi, A. C. (2014). Aggressive forms and functions on school playgrounds: Profile variations in interaction styles, bystander actions, and victimization. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 34(3), 285–310. doi: 10.1177/0272431613496638CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fronius, T., Persson, H., Guckenburg, S., Hurley, N., & Petrosino, A. (2016). Restorative justice in US schools: A research review. WestEd. Retrieved September 23, 2020, from: www.wested.org/resources/restorative-justice-research-review/.Google Scholar
Gardella, J. H. (2015). Restorative practices: For school administrators considering implementation. Vanderbilt University. Retrieved September 23, 2020, from: https://my.vanderbilt.edu/tn-s3-center-vanderbilt/files/2014/05/Restorative-practices-booklet-9.26.15-copy.pdf.Google Scholar
González, T., Sattler, H., & Buth, A. J. (2019). New directions in whole‐school restorative justice implementation. Conflict Resolution Quarterly, 36(3), 207–220. doi: 10.1002/crq.21236Google Scholar
Gottfredson, D. C., Cook, P. J., & Na, C. (2014). School social organization, discipline management, and crime. In Bruinsma, G. & Weisburd, D. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of criminology and criminal justice (pp. 4636–4645). New York: Springer-Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gottfredson, G. D. & Gottfredson, D. C. (1985). Victimization in schools. New York: Plenum.Google Scholar
Gottfredson, G. D., Gottfredson, D. C., Payne, A. A., & Gottfredson, N. C. (2005). School climate predictors of school disorder: Results from a national study of delinquency prevention in schools. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 42(4), 412–444. doi: 10.1177/0022427804271931Google Scholar
Gregory, A., Cornell, D., & Fan, X. (2012). Teacher safety and authoritative school climate in high schools. American Journal of Education, 118(4), 401–425. doi: 10.1086/666362CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gregory, A., & Evans, K. R. (2020). The starts and stumbles of restorative justice in education: Where do we go from here? Boulder, CO: National Education Policy Center. Retrieved from: http://nepc.colorado.edu/publication/Restorative-justice.Google Scholar
Gregory, A., & Weinstein, R. S. (2008). The discipline gap and African Americans: Defiance or cooperation in the high school classroom. Journal of School Psychology, 46, 455–475. doi: 10.1016/j.jsp.2007.09.001CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henry, S. (2009). School violence beyond Columbine: A complex problem in need of an interdisciplinary analysis. American Behavioral Scientist, 52(9), 1246–1265. doi: 10.1177/0002764209332544Google Scholar
Hopson, L. M., & Lee, E. (2011). Mitigating the effect of family poverty on academic and behavioral outcomes: The role of school climate in middle and high school. Children and Youth Services Review, 33, 2221–2229. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2011.07.006Google Scholar
Horner, R. H., Sugai, G., & Lewis, T. (2015). Is school-wide positive behavior support an evidence-based practice. Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports. Retrieved from: www.pbis.org/.Google Scholar
Hutzell, K., & Payne, A. A. (2017). The relationship between bullying victimization and school avoidance: An examination of direct associations, protective influences, and aggravating factors. Journal of School Violence, 17(2), 210–226. doi: 10.1080/15388220.2017.1296771Google Scholar
Johnson, S. L. (2009). Improving the school environment to reduce school violence: A review of the literature. Journal of School Health, 79(10), 451–465. doi: 10.1111/j.1746-1561.2009.00435.xGoogle Scholar
Katic, B., Alba, L. A., & Johnson, A. H. (2020). A systematic evaluation of restorative justice practices: School violence prevention and response. Journal of School Violence, 19(4), 579–593. doi: 10.1080/15388220.2020.1783670Google Scholar
Kellam, S. G., Rebok, G. W., Ialongo, N., & Mayer, L. S. (1994). The course and malleability of aggressive behavior from early first grade into middle school: Results of a developmental epidemiologically‐based preventive trial. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35(2), 259–281. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.1994.tb01161.xGoogle Scholar
King, S., & Bracy, N. L. (2019). School security in the post-Columbine era: Trends, consequences, and future directions. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 35(3), 274–295. doi: 10.1177/1043986219840188Google Scholar
Kivivuori, J., Savolainen, J., & Aaltonen, M. (2016). The revenge motive in delinquency: Prevalence and predictors. Acta Sociologica, 59(1), 69–84. doi: 10.1177/0001699315607969CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klein, J., Cornell, D., & Konold, T. (2012). Relationships between bullying, school climate, and student risk behaviors. School Psychology Quarterly, 27(3), 154–169. doi: 10.1037/a0029350Google Scholar
Kohl, D., Recchia, S., & Steffgen, G. (2013). Measuring school climate: An overview of measurement scales. Educational Research, 55(4), 411–426. doi: 10.1080/00131881.2013.844944CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lasnover, S. (2015). The early effects of the removal of willful defiance from the discipline policy at urban high schools (PhD dissertation). University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Lee, A., & Gage, N. A. (2020). Updating and expanding systematic reviews and meta‐analyses on the effects of school‐wide positive behavior interventions and supports. Psychology in the Schools, 57(5), 783–804. doi: 10.1002/pits.22336Google Scholar
Lewis, A. E., & Diamond, J. B. (2015). Despite the best intentions: How racial inequality thrives in good schools. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Ma, X., Stewin, L., & Mah, D.L. (2001). Bullying in school: Nature, effects, and remedies. Research Papers in Education, 16(3), 247–270. doi: 10.1080/02671520126826Google Scholar
May, D. C. (2014). School safety in the United States: A reasoned look at the rhetoric. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.Google Scholar
McCluskey, G. (2018). Restorative approaches in schools: Current practices, future directions. In Deakin, J., Taylor, E., & Kupchik, A. (Eds.), The Palgrave international handbook of school discipline, surveillance, and social control (pp. 573–593). Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
McCoy, D. C., Roy, A. L., & Sirkman, G. M. (2013). Neighborhood crime and school climate as predictors of elementary school academic quality: A cross-lagged panel analysis. American Journal of Community Psychology, 52(12), 128–140. doi: 10.1007/s10464–013-9583-5Google Scholar
McDonald, J., & Moore, D. (2001) Community conferencing as a special case of conflict transformation. In Strange, H. & Braithwaite, J. (Eds.), Restorative Justice and Civil Society (pp. 130–148). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
McDonald, K. L. (2019). Revenge goals. In Jones, M. H. (Ed.), Social goals in the classroom: Findings on student motivation and peer relations (pp. 111–130). New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Mitchell, M. M., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2013). Examining classroom influences on student perceptions of school climate: The role of classroom management and exclusionary discipline strategies. Journal of School Psychology, 51(5), 599–610. doi: 10.1016/j.jsp.2013.05.005CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mitchell, M. M., Bradshaw, C. P., & Leaf, P. J. (2010). Student and teacher perceptions of school climate: A multilevel exploration of patterns of discrepancy. Journal of School Health, 80(6), 271–279. doi: 10.1111/j.1746-1561.2010.00501.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morrison, B. E. (2003). Regulating safe school communities: Being responsive and restorative. Journal of Educational Administration, 41(6), 690–704. doi: 10.1108/09578230310504661Google Scholar
Morrison, B. E., & Vaandering, D. (2012). Restorative justice: Pedagogy, praxis, and discipline. Journal of School Violence, 11(2), 138–155. doi: 10.1080/15388220.2011.653322Google Scholar
Mullet, J. H. (2014). Restorative discipline: From getting even to getting well. Children & Schools, 36(3), 157–162. doi: 10.1093/cs/cdu011Google Scholar
Muschert, G. W., Henry, S., Bracy, N. L., & Peguero, A. A. (Eds.), (2014). Responding to school violence: Confronting the columbine effect. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar
Muschert, G. W., & Peguero, A. A. (2010). The Columbine effect and school anti-violence policy. Research in Social Problems and Public Policy, 17, 117–148. doi: 10.1108/S0196–1152(2010)0000017007Google Scholar
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2016). Preventing bullying through science, policy, and practice. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Retrieved September 23, 2020, from: www.nap.edu/catalog/23482/preventing-bullying-through-science-policy-and-practiceGoogle Scholar
National School Climate Council. (2007). The school climate challenge: Narrowing the gap between school climate research and school climate policy, practice guidelines and teacher education policy. New York: National School Climate Center. Retrieved September 23, 2020, from: www.schoolclimate.org/themes/schoolclimate/assets/pdf/policy/school-climate-challenge-web.pdfGoogle Scholar
Nichols, Joe D. (2004). An exploration of discipline and suspension data. The Journal of Negro Education, 73, 408–423. doi: 10.2307/4129625Google Scholar
Noguera, Pedro A. (1995). Preventing and producing violence: A critical analysis of responses to school violence. Harvard Educational Review, 65(2), 189–212. doi: 10.17763/haer.65.2.e4615g5374044q28Google Scholar
Noguera, Pedro A. (2003). Schools, prisons, and social implications of punishment: Rethinking disciplinary practices. Theory into Practice, 42, 341–50. doi: 10.1207/s15430421tip4204_12Google Scholar
Ortega, L., Lyubansky, M., Nettles, S., & Espelage, D. L. (2016). Outcomes of a restorative circles program in a high school setting. Psychology of Violence, 6(3), 459. doi: 10.1037/vio0000048Google Scholar
Payne, A. A. (2008). A multilevel analysis of the relationships among communal school organization, student bonding, and school disorder. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 45(4), 429–455. doi: 10.1177/0022427808322621Google Scholar
Payne, A. A. (2012). Communal school organization effects on school disorder: Interactions with school structure. Deviant Behavior, 33(7), 507–524. doi: 10.1080/01639625.2011.636686Google Scholar
Payne, A. A. (2018). Creating and sustaining a positive and communal school climate: Contemporary research, present obstacles, and future directions. White paper for the National Institute of Justice, Comprehensive School Safety Initiative. Retrieved September 23, 2020, from: www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/250209.pdfGoogle Scholar
Payne, A. A., & Gottfredson, D. C. (2018). School climate. In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi: 10.1093/acrefore/9780190264079.013.480Google Scholar
Payne, A. A., Gottfredson, D. C., & Gottfredson, G. D. (2003). Schools as communities: The relationships among communal school organization, student bonding, and school disorder. Criminology, 41(3), 749–777. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.2003.tb01003.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peguero, A. A., & Bracy, N. L. (2014). School order, justice, and education: Climate, discipline practices, and dropping out. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 25(3), 412–426. doi: 10.1111/jora.12138Google Scholar
Peguero, A. A., & Shekarkhar, Z. (2011). Latino/a student misbehavior and school punishment. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 33, 54–70. doi: 10.1177/0739986310388021Google Scholar
Perry, A. C. (1908). The management of a city school. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Poduska, J. M., Kellam, S. G., Wang, W., Brown, C. H., Ialongo, N. S., & Toyinbo, P. (2008). Impact of the Good Behavior Game, a universal classroom-based behavior intervention, on young adult service use for problems with emotions, behavior, or drugs or alcohol. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 95, S29–S44. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.10.009Google Scholar
Rios, V. M., & Vigil, J. D. (2017). Human targets: Schools, police, and the criminalization of Latino youth. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Robers, S., Zhang, A., Morgan, R. E., & Musu-Gillette, L. (2015). Indicators of school crime and safety: 2014. National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education, and Bureau of Justice Statistics, Office of Justice Programs. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice. Retrieved September 23, 2020, from: https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2015/2015072.pdfGoogle Scholar
Rocque, M., & Paternoster, R. (2011). Understanding the antecedents of the “school-to-jail” link: The relationship between race and school discipline. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 101, 633–665. doi: 0091-4169/11/10102-0633Google Scholar
Schiff, M. (2018). Can restorative justice disrupt the ‘school-to-prison pipeline?’. Contemporary Justice Review, 21(2), 121–139. doi: 10.1080/10282580.2018.1455509Google Scholar
Schiraldi, V., & Zeidenberg, J. (2001). Schools and suspensions: Self-reported crime and the growing use of suspensions. Washington, DC: Justice Policy Institute. Retrieved September 23, 2020, from: www.justicepolicy.org/research/2058Google Scholar
Shedd, C. (2015). Unequal city: Race, schools, and perceptions of injustice. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Simon, J. (2007). Governing through crime: How the war on crime transformed American democracy and created a culture of fear. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Skiba, R. J. (2001). When is disproportionality discrimination? The overrepresentation of black students in school suspension. In Ayers, W., Dohrn, B., & Ayers, R. (Eds.), Zero tolerance: Resisting the drive for punishment in our schools: A Handbook for Parents, Students, Educators, and Citizens (pp. 176–187). New York: The New Press.Google Scholar
Skiba, R. J., Horner, R. H., Chung, C.-G., Rausch, M. K., May, S. L., & Tobin, T. (2011). Race is not neutral: A national investigation of African American and Latino disproportionality in school discipline. School Psychology Review, 40, 85–107. doi: 10.1080/02796015.2011.12087730Google Scholar
Skiba, R. J., Michael, R. S., Nardo, A. C., & Peterson, R. L. (2002). The color of discipline: Sources of racial and gender disproportionality in school punishment. The Urban Review, 34(4), 317–342.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skiba, R. J., & Peterson, R. L. (2000). School discipline at a crossroads: From zero tolerance to early response. Exceptional Children, 66(3), 335–346. doi: 10.1177/001440290006600305Google Scholar
Skiba, R. J., & Rausch, M. K. (2006). Zero tolerance, suspension, and expulsion: Questions of equity and effectiveness. In Evertson, C. M. & Weinstein, C. S. (Eds.), Handbook of classroom management: Research, practice, and contemporary issues (pp. 1063–1089). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Steffgen, G., Recchia, S., & Viechtbauer, W. (2013). The link between school climate and violence in school: A meta-analytic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 18, 300–309. doi: 10.1016/j.avb.2012.12.001Google Scholar
Sugai, G., & Simonsen, B. (2012). Positive behavioral interventions and supports: History, defining features, and misconceptions. Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports. Retrieved September 23, 2020, from: https://assets-global.website-files.com/5d3725188825e071f1670246/5d82be96e8178d30ae613263_pbis_revisited_june19r_2012.pdf.Google Scholar
Thapa, A., Cohen, J., Guffey, S., & Higgins-D’Alessandro, A. (2013). A review of school climate research. Review of Educational Research, 83(3), 357–385. doi: 10.3102/0034654313483907Google Scholar
Tolan, P. H., Henry, D. B., Schoeny, M. S., Lovegrove, P., & Nichols, E. (2014). Mentoring programs to affect delinquency and associated outcomes of youth at risk: A comprehensive meta-analytic review. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 10(2), 179–206. doi: 10.1007/s11292–013-9181-4Google Scholar
U.S. Department of Education. (2019). 2015–16 Civil Rights Data Collection: School climate and safety. Retrieved September 23, 2020, from: www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/school-climate-and-safety.pdf.Google Scholar
Vavrus, F., & Cole, K. (2002). “I didn’t do nothin’”: The discursive construction of school suspension. The Urban Review, 34(2), 87–111.Google Scholar
Velez, G., Hahn, M., Recchia, H., & Wainryb, C. (2020). Rethinking responses to youth rebellion: Recent growth and development of restorative practices in schools. Current Opinion in Psychology, 35, 36–40. doi: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.02.011Google Scholar
Vincent, C. G., & Tobin, T. J. (2011). The relationship between implementation of school-wide positive behavior support (SWPBS) and disciplinary exclusion of students from various ethnic backgrounds with and without disabilities. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 19(4), 217–232. doi: 10.1177/1063426610377329Google Scholar
Wacquant, Loïc. (2001). Deadly symbiosis: When ghetto and prison meet and mesh. In Garland, D. (Ed.), Mass imprisonment: Social causes and consequences (pp. 82–120). London, UK: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Wang, K., Chen, Y., Zhang, J., and Oudekerk, B. A. (2020). Indicators of School Crime and Safety: 2019 (NCES 2020-063/NCJ 254485). National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education, and Bureau of Justice Statistics, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. Washington, DC. Retrieved September 23, 2020, from: www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/iscs19.pdfGoogle Scholar
Wang, M. T., & Dishion, T. J. (2011). The trajectories of adolescents’ perceptions of school climate, deviant peer affiliation, and behavioral problems during middle school years. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 22(1), 40–53. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-7795.2011.00763.xGoogle Scholar
Warnick, B. R., & Scribner, C. F. (2020). Discipline, punishment, and the moral community of schools. Theory and Research in Education, 18(1), 98–116. doi: 10.1177/1477878520904943Google Scholar
Welch, K., & Payne, A. A. (2014). Racial implications of school discipline and climate. In Muschert, G. W., Henry, S., & Bracy, N. L. (Eds.), Responding to school violence: Confronting the Columbine effect (pp. 125–138). Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.Google Scholar
Welch, K., Payne, A. A., Chiricos, T., & Gertz, M. (2011). The typification of Hispanics as criminals and support for punitive crime control policies. Social Science Research, 40(3), 822–840. doi: 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2010.09.012Google Scholar
Welsh, R. O., & Little, S. (2018). The school discipline dilemma: A comprehensive review of disparities and alternative approaches. Review of Educational Research, 88(5), 752–794. doi: 10.3102/0034654318791582Google Scholar
Zaykowski, H., & Gunter, W. (2012). Youth victimization: School climate or deviant lifestyles? Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 27(3), 431–452. doi: 10.1177/0886260511421678CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×