Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-4rdpn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-04T21:50:26.597Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

4 - The Evolution of Cognition in Primates, Including Humans

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 July 2022

By
David A. Leavens
Edited by
Bennett L. Schwartz  and
Michael J. Beran
Bennett L. Schwartz
Affiliation:
Florida International University
Michael J. Beran
Affiliation:
Georgia State University
Get access

Summary

Cognition is the use of information to solve problems, and the evolution of cognition is the natural history of the application of problem-solving capacities to adaptive problems. The ecological contexts in which primates apply their cognitive capacities vary substantially, and therefore the specific problems pertaining to fitness – finding mates, finding food, predator avoidance, and so forth – elicit systematic patterns of comportment through these different environments. A central debate in comparative cognition concerns the degree to which cognitive abilities are shaped by natural selection: this is the question of whether any given problem-solving skill reflects the application of domain-general or domain-specific cognitive capacities. The debate over whether the demands of foraging or the complexity of the social environment exerts the greater force on brain evolution and behavior exemplifies that the kinds of questions that can be asked about cognitive evolution significantly depend on one’s prior commitment to the domain-specificity of adaptive behavior. It remains a relatively open question whether there are cognitive specializations for navigating the physical world that are qualitatively distinct from specializations for navigating the social world. There is a panoply of investigative methods for eliciting problem-solving behavior in captive populations of primates, but there is also an emerging tension between proponents of ecological and internal validity, respectively. Here, I will argue that artificial, captive environments are, nevertheless, ecologically comprised and that the study of captive animals follows a long tradition of perturbation studies in ethology. I will finish with a number of case studies of primate cognition from both wild and captive environments.

Keywords

primate cognitionexperimental validityembodied cognitionperturbation studiesphysical cognitionsocial cognitiontelementation
Type
Chapter
Information
Primate Cognitive Studies , pp. 57 - 87
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2022

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Anderson, J. R., Sallaberry, P., & Barbier, H. (1995). Use of experimenter-given cues during object-choice tasks by capuchin monkeys. Animal Behaviour, 49, 201–208.Google Scholar
L’Anson Price, R., & Grüter, C. (2015) Why, when and where did honey bee dance communication evolve? Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 3, 125.Google Scholar
Arbib, M. A. (2018). In support of the role of pantomime in language evolution. Journal of Language Evolution, 3, 41–44.Google Scholar
Bard, K. A. (1992). Intentional behavior and intentional communication in young free-ranging orangutans. Child Development, 63, 1186–1197.Google Scholar
Bard, K. A., Bakeman, R., Boysen, S. T., & Leavens, D. A. (2014). Emotional engagements predict and enhance social cognition in young chimpanzees. Developmental Science, 17, 682–696.Google Scholar
Bard, K. A., & Leavens, D. A. (2014). The importance of development for comparative primatology. Annual Review of Anthropology, 43, 183–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barone, P., & Gomila, A. (2020). Infants’ performance in the indirect false belief tasks: A second-person interpretation. WIREs Cognitive Science, e1551.Google Scholar
Barrett, L., & Henzi, P. (2005). The social nature of primate cognition. Proceedings of the Royal Society, B, 272, 1865–1875.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barrett, L., Henzi, P., & Rendall, D. (2007). Social brains, simple minds: Does social complexity really require cognitive complexity? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B, 362, 561–575.Google Scholar
Bates, E., Camaioni, L., & Volterra, V. (1975). Performatives prior to speech. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 21, 205–226.Google Scholar
Bateson, P. P. G. (1966). The characteristics and context of imprinting. Biological Reviews, 41, 177–220.Google Scholar
Bateson, P., & Laland, K. N. (2013). Tinbergen’s four questions: An appreciation and an update. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 28, 712–718.Google Scholar
Beach, F. A. (1950). The snark was a boojum. American Psychologist, 5, 115–124.Google Scholar
Beatty, H. (1951). A note on the behavior of the chimpanzee. Journal of Mammology, 32, 118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blaschke, M., & Ettlinger, G. (1987). Pointing as an act of social communication by monkeys. Animal Behaviour, 35, 1520–1523.Google Scholar
Boesch, C. (2007). What makes us human (Homo sapiens)? The challenge of cognitive cross-species comparison. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 121, 227–240.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boesch, C. (2012a). The ecology and evolution of social behavior and cognition in primates. In Shackelford, T. K. & Vonk, J. (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of comparative evolutionary psychology (pp. 486–503). Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boesch, C. (2012b). Wild cultures: A comparison between chimpanzee and human cultures. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Boesch, C. (2021). Identifying animal complex cognition requires natural complexity. iSCIENCE, 24, 102195.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boesch, C., & Boesch-Achermann, H. (2000). The chimpanzees of the Taï Forest: Behavioural ecology and evolution. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Bolles, R. C. (1970). Species-specific defense reactions and avoidance learning. Psychological Review, 77, 32–48.Google Scholar
Bourjade, M., Canteloup, C., Meguerditchian, A., Vauclair, J., & Gaunet, F. (2015). Training experience in gestures affects the display of social gaze in baboons’ communication with a human. Animal Cognition, 18, 239–250.Google Scholar
Bourjade, M., Gaunet, F., Maugard, A., & Meguerditchian, A. (2019). Manipulating social cues in baboon gesture learning: What does it tell us about the evolution of communication? Animal Cognition, 22, 113–125.Google Scholar
Bourjade, M., Meguerditchian, A., Maille, A., Gaunet, F., & Vauclair, J. (2014). Olive baboons, Papio anubis, adjust their visual and auditory intentional gestures to the visual attention of others. Animal Behaviour, 87, 121–128.Google Scholar
Breland, K., & Breland, M. (1961). The misbehavior of organisms. American Psychologist, 16, 681–684.Google Scholar
Brown, C., & Braithwaite, V. A. (2005). Effects of predation pressure on the cognitive ability of the poecilid Brachyraphis episcopi. Behavioral Ecology, 16, 482–487.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butterworth, G. (2003). Pointing is the royal road to language for babies. In Kita, S. (Ed.), Pointing: Where language, culture and cognition meet (pp. 9–33). Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Byrne, R. W., & Bates, L. A. (2010, March 25). Primate social cognition: Uniquely primate, uniquely social, or just unique? Neuron, 65, 815–830.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Byrne, R. W., & Whiten, A. (Eds.). (1988). Machiavellian intelligence: Social expertise and the evolution of intellect in monkeys, apes, and humans. Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (1994). Production and comprehension of referential pointing by orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 108, 307–317.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (1999). A non-verbal false-belief task: The performance of children and great apes. Child Development, 70, 381–395.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (Eds.) (2007). The gestural communication of apes and monkeys. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Clark, H., Elsherif, M., & Leavens, D. A. (2019). Ontogeny vs. phylogeny in Primate/Canid comparisons: A meta-analysis of the object choice task. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 105, 178–189.Google Scholar
Clark, H., & Leavens, D. A. (2019). Testing dogs in ape-like conditions: The effect of a barrier on dogs’ performance on the object choice task. Animal Cognition, 22, 1063–1072.Google Scholar
Clark, H., & Leavens, D. A. (2021). The performance of domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) on two versions of the object choice task. Animal Cognition, 24, 1087–1098.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crockford, C., Wittig, R. M., Mundry, R., & Zuberbühler, K. (2012). Wild chimpanzees inform ignorant group members of danger. Current Biology, 22, 142–146.Google Scholar
Crockford, C., Wittig, R. M., & Zuberbühler, K. (2017). Vocalizing in chimpanzees is influenced by social-cognitive processes. Science Advances, 3, e1701742.Google Scholar
Custance, D. M., Whiten, A., & Bard, K. A. (1995). Can young chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) imitate arbitrary actions? Hayes & Hayes (1952) revisited. Behaviour, 132, 837–859.Google Scholar
Darwin, C. (1871). The descent of man, and selection in relation to sex, Vol. 1. John Murray.Google Scholar
de Moura, A. C., & Lee, P. C. (2004, December 10). Capuchin stone tool use in Caatinga Dry Forest. Science, 306, 190.Google Scholar
DeCasien, A. R., Williams, S. A., & Higham, J. P. (2017). Primate brain size is predicted by diet but not sociality. Nature: Ecology & Evolution, 1, 0112.Google Scholar
Digby, L. J., Ferrari, S. F., & Saltzman, W. (2010). Callitrichines: The role of competition in cooperatively breeding species. In Campbell, C., Fuentes, A., MacKinnon, K. C., Bearder, S., & Stumpf, R. (Eds.), Primates in perspective, 2nd ed. (pp. 91–107). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Douglas, P. H., & Moscovice, L. R. (2015). Pointing and pantomime in wild apes? Female bonobos use referential and iconic gestures to request genito-genital rubbing. Scientific Reports, 5, 13999.Google Scholar
Dunbar, R. I. M., & Shultz, S. (2017). Why are there so many explanations for primate brain evolution? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B, 372, 20160244.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fitch, W. T. (2000). The evolution of speech: A comparative review. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, 258–267.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fleagle, J. G. (2013). Primate adaptation and evolution, 3rd ed. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Fouts, R. S., Fouts, D. H., & Van Cantfort, T. E. (1989). The infant Loulis learns signs from cross-fostered chimpanzees. In Gardner, R. A., Gardner, B. T., & Van Cantfort, T. E. (Eds.), Teaching sign language to chimpanzees (pp. 280–292). State University of New York Press.Google Scholar
Fouts, R. S., & Mills, S. T. (1997). Next of kin: My conversations with chimpanzees. Avon.Google Scholar
Fox, E. A., Sitompul, A. F., & van Schaik, C. P. (1999). Intelligent tool use in wild Sumatran orangutans. In Parker, S. T., Mitchell, R. W., & Lyn Miles, H. (Eds.), The mentalities of gorillas and orangutans: Comparative perspectives (pp. 99–116). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Fragaszy, D. Izar, P., Visalberghi, E., Ottoni, E., & de Oliveira, M. G. (2004). Wild capuchin monkeys (Cebus libidinosus) use anvils and stone pounding tools. American Journal of Primatology, 64, 359–366.Google Scholar
François, Q., & Rossetti, Y. (2020). What do theory-of-mind tasks actually measure? Theory and practice. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 15, 384–396.Google Scholar
Froese, T., & Leavens, D. A. (2014). The direct perception hypothesis: Perceiving the intention of another’s action hinders its precise imitation. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Furness, W. H. (1916). Observations on the mentality of chimpanzees and orangutans. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 55, 281–290.Google Scholar
Furuichi, T. (1997). Agonistic interactions and matrifocal dominance rank of wild bonobos (Pan paniscus) at Wamba. International Journal of Primatology, 18, 855–875.Google Scholar
Gardner, R. A., & Gardner, B. T. (1969, August 15). Teaching sign language to a chimpanzee. Science, 165, 664–672.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Genty, E., & Zuberbühler, K. (2015). Iconic gesturing in bonobos. Communicative & Integrative Biology, 8, e992742.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Golinkoff, R. M. (1986). “I beg your pardon?” The preverbal negotiation of failed messages. Journal of Child Language, 13, 455–476.Google Scholar
Gómez, J.-C. (1990). The emergence of intentional communication as a problem-solving strategy in the gorilla. In Parker, S. T. & Gibson, K. R. (Eds.), “Language” and intelligence in monkeys and apes (pp. 333–355). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Goodall, J. (1968). The behaviour of free-ranging chimpanzees in the Gombe Stream Reserve. Animal Behaviour Monographs, 1, 161–311.Google Scholar
Goodall, J. (1986). The chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of behavior. Belknap Press.Google Scholar
Hare, B., & Tomasello, M. (2005). Human-like social skills in dogs? Trends in Cognitive Science, 9, 439–444.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hattori, Y., Kuroshima, H., & Fujita, K. (2007). I know you are not looking at me: Capuchin monkeys’ (Cebus apella) sensitivity to human attentional states. Animal Cognition, 10, 141–148.Google Scholar
Hattori, Y., Kuroshima, H., & Fujita, K. (2010). Tufted capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) show understanding of human attentional states when requesting food held by a human. Animal Cognition, 13, 87–92.Google Scholar
Hayes, K. J., & Hayes, C. (1952). Imitation in a home-raised chimpanzee. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 45, 450–459.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heads, M. (2010). Evolution and biogeography of primates: A new model based on molecular phylogenetics, vicariance and plate tectonics. Zoologica Scripta, 39, 107–127.Google Scholar
Heyes, C. (2018). Cognitive gadgets: The cultural evolution of thinking. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Hixson, M. D. (1998). Ape language research: A review and behavioral perspective. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 15, 17–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hobaiter, C., & Byrne, R. W. (2010). Able-bodied wild chimpanzees imitate a motor procedure used by a disabled individual to overcome handicap. PLoS ONE, 5, e11959.Google Scholar
Hobaiter, C., Leavens, D. A., & Byrne, R. W. (2014). Deictic gesturing in wild chimpanzees? Some possible cases. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 128, 82–87. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033757. [Reprinted in French as Hobaiter, C., Leavens, D. A., & Byrne, R. W. (2016). Gestes déictiques chez les chimpanzés sauvages (Pan troglodytes)? Quelques cas possibles. Enfance, 2016, 405–417.]Google Scholar
Hopkins, W. D., Taglialatela, J., & Leavens, D. A. (2007). Chimpanzees differentially produce novel vocalizations to capture the attention of a human. Animal Behaviour, 73, 281–286.Google Scholar
Hopkins, W. D., Taglialatela, J. P., & Leavens, D. A. (2011). Do chimpanzees have voluntary control of their facial expressions and vocalizations? In Vilain, A., Schwartz, J.-.L., Abry, C., & Vauclair, J. (Eds.), Primate communication and human language: Vocalisation, gestures, imitation and deixis in humans and non-humans (pp. 71–88). Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horowitz, A. C. (2003). Do humans ape? Or do apes human? Imitation and intention in humans (Homo sapiens) and other animals. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 117, 325–336.Google Scholar
Itakura, S., Agnetta, B., Hare, B., & Tomasello, M. (1999). Chimpanzee use of human and conspecific cues to locate hidden food. Developmental Science, 2, 448–456.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Joffe, B., Peichl, L., Hendrickson, A., Leonhardt, H., & Solovei, I. (2014). Diurnality and nocturnality in primates: An analysis from the rod photoreceptor nuclei perspective. Evolutionary Biology, 41, 1–11.Google Scholar
Johnson, C. M. (2001). Distributed primate cognition: A review. Animal Cognition, 4, 167–183.Google Scholar
Jolly, A. (1966, July 26). Lemur social behavior and primate intelligence. Science, 154, 501–506.Google Scholar
Kearton, C. (1925). My friend Toto: The adventures of a chimpanzee and the story of his journey from Congo to London. Arrowsmith.Google Scholar
Kirchhofer, K. C., Zimmermann, F., Kaminski, J., & Tomasello, M. (2012). Dogs (Canis familiaris), but not chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), understand imperative pointing. PLoS ONE, 7, e30913.Google Scholar
Köhler, C., Hoffman, K. P., Dehnhardt, G., & Mauck, B. (2005). Mental rotation and rotational invariance in the Rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta). Brain, Behavior and Evolution, 66, 158–166.Google Scholar
Köhler, W. (1925). The mentality of apes. Harcourt, Brace, & Co.Google Scholar
Krause, M. A., & Beran, M. J. (2020). Words matter: Reflections on language projects with chimpanzees and their implications. American Journal of Primatology, e23187.Google Scholar
Krause, M. A., & Fouts, R. S. (1997). Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) pointing: Hand shapes, accuracy, and the role of eye gaze. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 111, 330–336.Google Scholar
Krause, M. A., Udell, M. A. R., Leavens, D. A., & Skopos, L. (2018). Animal pointing: Changing trends and findings from 30 years of research. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 132, 326–345.Google Scholar
Krupenye, C., Kano, F., Hirata, S., Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (2016, October 7). Great apes anticipate that other individuals will act according to false beliefs. Science, 354, 110–114.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kumashiro, M., Ishibashi, H., Itakura, S., & Iriki, A. (2002). Bidirectional communication between a Japanese monkey and a human through eye gaze and pointing. Cahiers de Psychologie/Current Psychology of Cognition, 21, 2–32.Google Scholar
Laumer, I. B., Auersprg, A. M. I., Bugnyar, T., & Call, J. (2019). Orangutans (Pongo abelii) make flexible decisions relative to reward quality and tool functionality in a multi-dimensional tool-use task. PLoS ONE, 14, e0211031.Google Scholar
Leavens, D. A. (2006). It takes time and experience to learn how to interpret gaze in mentalistic terms. Infant and Child Development, 15, 187–190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leavens, D. A. (2014). The plight of the sense-making ape. In Cappuccio, M. & Froese, T. (Eds.), Enactive cognition at the edge of sense-making (pp. 81–104). Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Leavens, D. A. (2018). The cognitive implications of intentional communication: A multi-faceted mirror. In Di Paolo, L., Di Vincenzo, F., & De Petrillo, F. (Eds.), Evolution of primate social cognition (pp. 59–77). Springer.Google Scholar
Leavens, D. A. (2021). The referential problem space revisited: An ecological hypothesis of the evolutionary and developmental origins of pointing. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 12, e1554.Google Scholar
Leavens, D. A., & Bard, K. A. (2021). Primate cognition in captivity. In Lock, A., Sinha, C., and Gontier, N. (Eds.), Oxford handbook of human symbolic evolution. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Leavens, D. A., Bard, K. A., & Hopkins, W. D. (2010). BIZARRE chimpanzees do not represent “the chimpanzee”. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33, 100–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leavens, D. A., Bard, K. A., & Hopkins, W. D. (2019). The mismeasure of ape social cognition. Animal Cognition, 22, 487–504.Google Scholar
Leavens, D. A., & Clark, H. (2017). Joint attention. In Vonk, J. & Shackelford, T. K. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of animal cognition and behavior. Springer.Google Scholar
Leavens, D. A., & Hopkins, W. D. (1998). Intentional communication by chimpanzees: A cross-sectional study of the use of referential gestures. Developmental Psychology, 34, 813–822.Google Scholar
Leavens, D. A., Hopkins, W. D., & Bard, K. A. (1996). Indexical and referential pointing in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 110, 346–353.Google Scholar
Leavens, D. A., Reamer, L. A., Mareno, M. C., Russell, J. L., Wilson, D., Schapiro, S. J., & Hopkins, W. D. (2015). Distal communication by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): Evidence for common ground? Child Development, 86, 1623–1638.Google Scholar
Leavens, D. A., Russell, J. L., & Hopkins, W. D. (2005). Intentionality as measured in the persistence and elaboration of communication by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Child Development, 76, 291–306.Google Scholar
Liebal, K. (2018). What gestures of nonhuman primates can (and cannot) tell us about language evolution. In Boë, L.-J., Fagot, J., Perrier, P., & Schwartz, J.-L. (Eds.), Origins of human language: Continuities and discontinuities with nonhuman primates (pp. 265–304). Peter Lang International Academic Publishers.Google Scholar
Lorenz, K. (1935/1965). Der kumpan in der umwelt des vogels. Journal of Ornithology, 83, 137–213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lyn, H. (2010). Environment, methodology, and the object-choice task in apes: Evidence for declarative comprehension and implications for the evolution of language. Journal of Evolutionary Psychology, 8, 333–349.Google Scholar
Lyn, H. (2017). The question of capacity: Why enculturated and trained animals have much to tell us about the evolution of language. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 24, 85–90.Google Scholar
Lyn, H., Russell, J. L., & Hopkins, W. D. (2010). The impact of environment on the comprehension of declarative communication in apes. Psychological Science, 21, 360–365.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McComb, K., & Semple, S. (2005). Coevolution of vocal communication and sociality in primates. Biology Letters, 1, 381–385.Google Scholar
Meunier, H., Prieur, J., & Vauclair, J. (2013). Olive baboons communicate intentionally by pointing. Animal Cognition, 16, 155–163.Google Scholar
Mitchell, R. W., & Anderson, J. R. (1997). Pointing, withholding information, and deception in capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 111, 351–361.Google Scholar
Mitchell, R. W., & Thompson, N. S. (Eds.). (1986). Deception: Perspectives on human and non‐human deceit. State University of New York Press.Google Scholar
Mulcahy, N. J., & Hedge, V. (2012). Are great apes tested with an abject object-choice task? Animal Behaviour, 83, 313–321.Google Scholar
Nijman, V., & Nekaris, K. A. I. (2012). Loud calls, startle behaviour, social organisation and predator avoidance in arboreal langurs (Cercopithecidae: Presbytis). Folia Primatologica, 83, 274–287.Google Scholar
O’Malley, R. C., & McGrew, W. C. (2000). Oral tool use by captive orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus). Folia primatological, 71, 334–341.Google Scholar
Pepperberg, I. M. (1999). The Alex studies: Cognitive and communicative abilities of grey parrots. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Povinelli, D. J., Bering, J., & Giambrone, S. (2003). Chimpanzee “pointing”: Another error of the argument by analogy? In Kita, S. (Ed.), Pointing: Where language, culture, and cognition meet (pp. 35–68). Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Premack, D. (2007). Human and animal cognition: Continuity and discontinuity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 104, 13861–13867.Google Scholar
Premack, D., & Woodruff, G. (1978a). Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind? The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 4, 515–526.Google Scholar
Premack, D., & Woodruff, G. (1978b, November 3). Chimpanzee problem-solving: A test for comprehension. Science, 202, 532–535.Google Scholar
Pruetz, J. D., & Bertolani, P. (2007). Savanna chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes verus, hunt with tools. Current Biology, 17, 412–417.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rumbaugh, D. M. (Ed.). (1977). Language learning by a chimpanzee: The Lana project. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Russell, J. L., Lyn, H., Schaeffer, J. A., & Hopkins, W. D. (2011). The role of socio-communicative rearing environments in the development of social and physical cognition in apes. Developmental Science, 14, 1459–1470.Google Scholar
Russon, A. E. (2018). Pantomime and imitation in great apes: Implications for reconstructing the evolution of language. Interaction Studies, 19, 200–215.Google Scholar
Russon, A. E., & Andrews, K. (2011). Orangutan pantomime: Elaborating the message. Biology Letters, 7, 627–630.Google Scholar
Russon, A. E., & Galdikas, B. M. F. (1993). Imitation in free-ranging rehabilitant orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 107, 147–161.Google Scholar
Russon, A. E., & Galdikas, B. M. F. (1995). Constraints on great apes’ imitation: Model and action selectivity in rehabilitant orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) imitation. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 109, 5–17.Google Scholar
Savage-Rumbaugh, E. S. (1986). Ape language: From conditioned response to symbol. Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Savage-Rumbaugh, S., McDonald, K., Sevcik, R. A., Hopkins, W. D., & Rubert, E. (1986). Spontaneous symbol acquisition and communicative use by pygmy chimpanzees (Pan paniscus). Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 115, 211–235.Google Scholar
Savage-Rumbaugh, E. S., Murphy, J., Sevcik, R. A., Brakke, K. E., Williams, S. L., & Rumbaugh, D. M. (1993). Language comprehension in ape and child. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 58, i-252 (Ser. No. 233).Google Scholar
Savage-Rumbaugh, E. S., Rumbaugh, D. M., & Boysen, S. (1978, August 18). Symbolic communication between two chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Science, 201, 641–644.Google Scholar
Shepard, R. N., & Metzler, J. (1971, February 19). Mental rotation of three-dimensional objects. Science, 171, 701–703.Google Scholar
Shettleworth, S. J. (1998). Cognition, evolution, and behavior. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Sinha, A., & Vijayakrishnan, S. (2017). Primates in urban settings. In Fuentes, A. (Ed.), The international encyclopedia of primatology (pp. 1–8). John Wiley and Sons.Google Scholar
Smith, J. D. (1997). The uncertain response in humans and animals. Cognition, 62, 75–97.Google Scholar
Smith, J. D. (2009). The study of animal metacognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13, 389–396.Google Scholar
Tanner, J., & Byrne, R. W. (1993). Concealing facial evidence of mood: Perspective-taking in a captive gorilla? Primates, 34, 451–457.Google Scholar
Tanner, J. E., & Byrne, R. W. (1996). Representation of action through iconic gesture in a captive lowland gorilla. Current Anthropology, 37, 162–173.Google Scholar
Tattersall, I. (2006). The concept of cathemerality: History and definition. Folia Primatologica, 77, 7–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Teleki, G. (1973). The predatory behavior of wild chimpanzees. Bucknell University Press.Google Scholar
Thomas, E., Murphy, M., Pitt, R., Rivers, A., & Leavens, D. A. (2008). Understanding of visual attention by adult humans (Homo sapiens): A partial replication of Povinelli, Bierschwale, and Čech (1999). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 122, 428–436.Google Scholar
Tinbergen, N. (1959). Behaviour, systematics, and natural selection. Ibis, 101, 318–330.Google Scholar
Tinbergen, N. (1963). On aims and methods of ethology. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie, 20, 410–433. [Reprinted in Animal Biology, 55, 297–321 (2005).]Google Scholar
Tomasello, M. (2006). Why don’t apes point? In Enfield, N. J. & Levinson, S. C. (Eds.), Roots of human sociality: Culture, cognition and interaction (pp. 506–524). Berg.Google Scholar
Tomasello, M. (2019). Becoming human: A theory of ontogeny. Belknap Press.Google Scholar
Tomasello, M., & Call, J. (1997). Primate cognition. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Tomasello, M., Carpenter, M., & Liszkowski, U. (2007). A new look at infant pointing. Child Development, 78, 705–722.Google Scholar
Tomasello, M., Kruger, A. C., & Ratner, H. H. (1993). Cultural learning. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 16, 495–552.Google Scholar
Vauclair, J., Fagot, J., & Hopkins, W. D. (1993). Rotation of mental images in baboons when the visual input is directed to the left cerebral hemisphere. Psychological Science, 4, 99–103.Google Scholar
Veà, J. J., & Sabater-Pi, J. (1998). Spontaneous pointing behaviour in the wild pygmy chimpanzee (Pan paniscus). Folia Primatologica, 69, 289–290.Google Scholar
Want, S. C., & Harris, P. L. (2002). How do children ape? Applying concepts from the study of non-human primates to the developmental study of “imitation” in children. Developmental Science, 5, 1–41.Google Scholar
Wich, S. A., Swartz, K. B., Hardus, M. E., Lameira, A. R., Stromberg, E., & Shumaker, R. W. (2009). A case of spontaneous acquisition of a human sound by an orangutan. Primates, 50, 56–64.Google Scholar
Witmer, L. (1909). A monkey with a mind. The Psychological Clinic, 3, 179–205.Google Scholar
Woodruff, G., & Premack, D. (1979). Intentional communication in the chimpanzee: The development of deception. Cognition, 7, 333–362.Google Scholar
Yerkes, R. M. (1916). Ideational behavior of monkeys and apes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2, 639–642.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×