Aarssen, L. W. & Epp, G. A. (1990). Neighbor manipulations in natural vegetation: A review. Journal of Vegetation Science, 1, 13–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Abbott, I. (1989). The influence of fauna on soil structure. In Animals in Primary Succession, ed. J. Majer, pp. 39–50. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Abramovitz, J. N. (2001). Averting unnatural disasters. In State of the World 2001, The Worldwatch Institute, ed. L. R. Brown, C. Flavin, H. French et al., pp. 123–42. New York: Norton

Adachi, N., Terashima, I. & Takahashi, M. (1996a). Nitrogen translocation via rhizome systems in monoclonal stands of Reynoutria japonica in an oligotrophic desert on Mt. Fuji: Field experiments. Ecological Research, 11, 175–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Adachi, N., Terashima, I. & Takahashi, M. (1996b). Central die-back of monoclonal stands of Reynoutria japonica in an early stage of primary succession on Mount Fuji. Annals of Botany, 77, 477–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Adams, P. & Sidle, R. (1987). Soil conditions in three recent landslides in southeast Alaska. Forest Ecology and Management, 18, 93–102CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Aellen, M. (1981). Recent fluctuations in glaciers. In Switzerland and Her Glaciers, ed. P. Kasser & W. Haeberli, pp. 70–89. Berne: Kümmerly & Frey

Aikio, S., Vare, H. & Strommer, R. (2000). Soil microbial activity and biomass in the primary succession of a dry heath forest. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 32, 1091–100CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Allen, E. B. (1982). Water and nutrient competition between Salsola kali and two native grass species (Agropyron smithii and Bouteloua gracilis). Ecology, 63, 732–41CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Allen, E. B. & Allen, M. F. (1980). Natural re-establishment of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae following stripmine reclamation in Wyoming. Journal of Applied Ecology, 17, 139–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Allen, E. B. & Allen, M. F. (1988). Facilitation of succession by the monomycotrophic colonizer Salsola kali (Chenopodiaceae) on a harsh site: Effects of mycorrhizal fungi. American Journal of Botany, 75, 257–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Allen, E. B. & Allen, M. F. (1990). The mediation of competition by mycorrhizae in successional and patchy environments. In Perspectives on Plant Competition, ed. J. G. Grace & D. Tilman, pp. 367–89. New York: Academic PressCrossRef

Allen, E. B., Chambers, J. C., Conner, K. F., Allen, M. F. & Brown, R. W. (1987). Natural re-establishment of mycorrhizae in disturbed alpine ecosystems. Arctic and Alpine Research, 19, 11–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Allen, M. F. (1991). The Ecology of Mycorrhizae. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Allen, M. F., Allen, E. B., Zink, T. A., Harney, S., Yoshida, L. C., Sigüenza, C., Edwards, F., Hinkson, C., Rillig, M., Bainbridge, D., Doljanin, C. & MacAller, R. (1999). Soil microorganisms. In Ecosystems of Disturbed Ground, Ecosystems of the World 16, ed. L. R. Walker, pp. 521–44. Amsterdam: Elsevier

Allen, M. F., Crisafulli, C., Friese, C. F. & Jenkins, S. (1992). Reformation of mycorrhizal symbioses on Mount St. Helens, 1980–1990: Interactions of rodents and mycorrhizal fungi. Mycological Research, 96, 447–53CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Allen, M. F. & MacMahon, J. A. (1988). Direct VA mycorrhizal inoculation of colonizing plants by pocket gophers (Thomomys talpoides) on Mount St. Helens. Mycologia, 80, 754–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Allen, R. B., Bellingham, P. J. & Wiser, S. K. (1999). Immediate damage by an earthquake to a temperate montane forest. Ecology, 80, 708–14CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Allison, F. E. (1973). Soil Organic Matter and its Role in Crop Production. New York: Elsevier

Alpert, P. & Mooney, H. A. (1996). Resource heterogeneity generated by shrubs and topography on coastal sand dunes. Vegetatio, 122, 83–93CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Amman, G. D. (1977). The role of the mountain pine beetle in lodgepole pine ecosystems: Impact on succession. In The Role of Arthropods in Forest Ecosystems, ed. W. J. Mattson, pp. 3–18. New York: SpringerCrossRef

Amundson, R. & Jenny, H. (1997). On a state factor model of ecosystems. BioScience, 47, 536–43CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Andersen, D. C. & MacMahon, J. A. (1985). Plant succession following the Mount St. Helens volcanic eruption: Facilitation by a burrowing rodent, Thomomys talpoides. American Midland Naturalist, 114, 62–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Andersen, E. (1999). Seed dispersal by monkeys and the fate of dispersed seeds in a Peruvian rain forest. Biotropica, 31, 145–58Google Scholar

Andersen, U. V. (1993). Dispersal strategies of Danish seashore plants. Ecography 16, 289–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Andersen, U. V. (1995). Succession and soil development in man-made coastal ecosystems in the Baltic Sea. Nordic Journal of Botany, 15, 91–104CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Anderson, D. J. (1986). Ecological succession. In Community Ecology: Pattern and Process, ed. J. Kikkawa & D. J. Anderson, pp. 269–85. London: Blackwell

Anderson, R. C., Fralish, J. S. & Baskin, J. M. (1999). Savannas, Barrens, and Rock Outcrop Plant Communities of North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Anderson, W. B. & Polis, G. A. (1999). Nutrient fluxes from water to land: seabirds affect plant nutrient status on Gulf of California islands. Oecologia, 118, 324–32CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Andrés, P. (1999). Ecological risks of the use of sewage sludge as fertilizer in soil restoration: Effects on soil microarthropod populations. Land Degradation and Development, 10, 67–773.0.CO;2-H>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Andrés, P. & Jorba, M. (2000). Mitigation strategies in some motorway embankments (Catalonia, Spain). Restoration Ecology, 8, 268–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Andrés, P., Zapater, V. & Pamplona, M. (1996). Stabilization of motorway slopes with herbaceous cover, Catalonia, Spain. Restoration Ecology, 4, 51–60CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Animkwapong, G. & Teklehairanot, Z. (1995). Reclamation of degraded cocoa lands using Albizia zygia. Land Degradation and Rehabilitation, 6, 109–23CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Antor, R. J. (1994). Arthropod fallout on high alpine snow patches of the Central Pyrenees, northeastern Spain. Arctic and Alpine Research, 26, 72–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Aplet, G. H. (1990). Alteration of earthworm community biomass by the alien Myrica faya in Hawai'i. Oecologia, 82, 414–16CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Aplet, G. H., Anderson, S. J. & Stone, C. P. (1991). Association between feral pig disturbance and the composition of some alien plant assemblages in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. Vegetatio, 95, 55–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Aplet, G. H., Hughes, R. F. & Vitousek, P. M. (1998). Ecosystem development on Hawaiian lava flows, biomass and species composition. Journal of Vegetation Science, 9, 17–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Aplet, G. H., Loh, R. L., Tunison, T. & Vitousek, P. M. (2002). Experimental restoration of a dense faya tree stand. In Studies on the Ecology and Management of Faya Tree: Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, 1986–1995, ed. T. Tunison. Technical Report, Cooperative Ecological Study Unit, University of Hawaii at Manoa. (In press.)

Aplet, G. H. & Vitousek, P. M. (1994). An age-altitude matrix analysis of Hawaiian rain-forest succession. Journal of Ecology, 82, 137–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Arianoutsou, M. (1998). Aspects of demography in post-fire Mediterranean plant communities of Greece. In Landscape Disturbance on Biodiversity in Mediterranean-type Ecosystems, ed. P. W. Rundel, G. Montenegro & F. M. Jaksic, pp. 273–95. Berlin: SpringerCrossRef

Armesto, J. J., Pickett, S. T. A. & McDonnell, M. J. (1991). Spatial heterogeneity during succession: A cyclic model of invasion and exclusion. In Ecological Heterogeneity, ed. J. Kolasa & S. T. A. Pickett, pp. 256–69. New York: SpringerCrossRef

Arnalds, O., Aradottir, A. L. & Thorsteinsson, I. (1987). The nature and restoration of denuded areas in Iceland. Arctic and Alpine Research, 19, 518–25CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Aronson, J. & LeFloc'h, E. (1996). Vital landscape attributes: Missing tools for restoration ecology. Restoration Ecology, 4, 377–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Aronson, J., Floret, C., LeFloc'h, E., Ovalle, C. & Pontanier, R. (1993). Restoration and rehabilitation of degraded ecosystems in arid and semiarid regions. I. A view from the South. Restoration Ecology, 1, 8–17CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ash, H. J., Gemmell, R. P. & Bradshaw, A. D. (1994). The introduction of native plant species on industrial waste heaps: A test of immigration and other factors affecting primary succession. Journal of Applied Ecology, 31, 74–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ashmole, N. P. & Ashmole, M. J. (1987). Arthropod communities supported by biological fallout on recent lava flows in the Canary Islands. Entomologia Scandinavica, Suppl., 32, 67–88Google Scholar

Ashmole, N. P., Ormomi, P., Ashmole, M. J. & Martin, J. L. (1992). Primary faunal succession in volcanic terrain: lava and cave studies on the Canary Islands. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 46, 207–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ashton, P. M., Samarasighe, S. J., Gunatilleke, I. A. & Gunatilleke, C. V. S. (1997). Role of legumes in release of successionally arrested grasslands in the Central Hills of Sri Lanka. Restoration Ecology, 5, 36–43CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Auerbach, N. A., Walker, M. D. & Walker, D. A. (1997). Effects of roadside disturbance on substrate and vegetation properties in arctic tundra. Ecological Applications, 7, 218–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Augspurger, C. K. (1986). Morphology and dispersal potential of wind dispersed diaspores of neotropical trees. American Journal of Botany, 73, 353–63CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Austin, M. P. (1981). Permanent quadrats: An interface for theory and practice. Vegetatio, 46, 6–10Google Scholar

Austin, M. P. (1985). Continuum concept, ordination methods, and niche theory. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 16, 39–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Austin, M. P. & Smith, T. M. (1989). A new model for the continuum concept. Vegetatio, 83, 35–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Avis, A. M. & Lubke, R. A. (1996). Dynamics and succession of coastal dune vegetation in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Landscape and Urban Planning, 34, 237–53CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ayyad, M. A. (1973). Vegetation and environment of the western Mediterranean coastal land of Egypt. Journal of Ecology, 4, 18–26Google Scholar

Bach, C. E. (1994). Effects of a specialist herbivore (Altica subplicata) on Salix cordata and sand dune succession. Ecological Monographs, 64, 423–45CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bach, C. E. (2001). Long-term effects of insect herbivory and sand accretion on plant succession on sand dunes. Ecology, 82, 1401–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Baker, W. L. & Walford, G. M. (1995). Multiple stable states and models of riparian vegetation succession on the Animas River, Colorado. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 85, 320–38CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bakken, L. (1985). Separation and purification of bacteria from soil. Applied Environmental Microbiology, 49, 1482–7Google ScholarPubMed

Bakker, J. P., Olff, H., Willems, J. H. & Zobel, M. (1996). Why do we need permanent plots in the study of long-term vegetation dynamics?Journal of Vegetation Science, 7, 147–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bakker, J. P., Grootjans, A. P., Hermy, M. & Poschlod, P. (2000). How to define targets for ecological restoration? Introduction. Applied Vegetation Science, 3, 3–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Balakrishnan, N. & Mueller-Dombois, D. (1983). Nutrient studies in relation to habitat types and canopy dieback in the montane rain forest ecosystem, Island of Hawai'i. Pacific Science, 37, 339–59Google Scholar

Barbour, M. G., de Jong, T. M. & Pavlik, P. M. (1985). Marine beach and dune plant communities. In Physiological Ecology of North American Plant Communities, ed. B. F. Chabot & H. A. Mooney, pp. 296–322. New York: Chapman & HallCrossRef

Bardgett, R. D. (2000). Patterns of below-ground primary succession at Glacier Bay, southeast Alaska. Bulletin of the British Ecological Society, 31, 40–2Google Scholar

Bardgett, R. D., Mawdsley, J. L., Edwards, S., Hobbs, P. J., Rodwell, J. S. & Davies, W. J. (1999). Plant species and nitrogen effects on soil biological properties of temperate upland grasslands. Functional Ecology, 13, 650–60CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Barrow, C. J. (1991). Land Degradation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Barrow, C. J. (1999). How humans respond to natural or anthropogenic disturbance. In Ecosystems of Disturbed Ground, Ecosystems of the World 16, ed. L. R. Walker, pp. 659–71. Amsterdam: Elsevier

Basher, L. R. (1986). Pedogenesis and erosion history in a high rainfall mountainous drainage basin – Cropp River, New Zealand. Ph.D. dissertation, Lincoln College, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand

Baskin, C. C. & Baskin, J. M. (1998). Seeds: Ecology, Biogeography and Evolution of Dormancy and Germination. New York: Academic Press

Baskin, J. M. & Baskin, C. C. (1988). Endemism in rock outcrop plant communities of unglaciated eastern United States: An evaluation of the roles of the edaphic, genetic and light factors. Journal of Biogeography, 15, 829–40CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bazzaz, F. A. 1979. The physiological ecology of plant succession. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 10, 351–71CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Beatty, S. W. & Stone, E. L. (1986). The variety of soil microsites created by tree falls. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 16, 539–48CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Becher, H. H. (1985). Compaction of arable soils due to reclamation or off-road military traffic. Reclamation and Revegetation Research, 4, 155–64Google Scholar

Begon, M., Harper, J. L. & Townsend, C. R. (1990). Ecology: Individuals, Populations and Communities. 2nd edition. Boston: Blackwell

Bekker, R. M., Lammerts, E. J., Schutter, A. & Grootjans, A. P. (1999). Vegetation development in dune slacks: The role of persistent seed banks. Journal of Vegetation Science, 10, 745–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bellingham, P. J., Walker, L. R. & Wardle, D. A. (2001). Differential facilitation by a nitrogen-fixing shrub during primary succession influences relative performance of canopy tree species. Journal of Ecology, 89, 861–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Belnap, J. (1995). Surface disturbances: Their role in accelerating desertification. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 37, 39–57CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Belnap, J. & Gillette, D. A. (1998). Vulnerability of desert biological soil crusts to wind erosion: The influences of crust development, soil texture and disturbance. Journal of Arid Environments, 39, 133–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Belnap, J. & Harper, K. T. (1995). Influence of cryptobiotic crusts on elemental content of tissue of two desert seed plants. Arid Soil Research and Rehabilitation, 9, 107–15CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Belnap, J., Harper, K. T. & Warren, S. D. (1994). Surface disturbance of cryptobiotic soil crusts: Nitrogenase activity, chlorophyll content, and chlorophyll degradation. Arid Soil Research and Rehabilitation, 8, 1–8Google Scholar

Belnap, J., Rosentreter, R., Kaltenecker, J., Williams, J, Leonard, S. & Eldridge, D. (contributors) (2000). Role of Microbiotic Soil Crusts in Rangeland Health. Bureau of Land Management National Training Center. Course Number 1730–41. Lake Mead National Recreation Area, Nevada, U.S.A.

Belousov, A. & Belousova, M. (1996). Large-scale landslides on active volcanoes in the 20th century: examples from the Kuril-Kamchatka region (Russia). In Landslides, ed. K. Senneset, pp. 953–7. Rotterdam: Balkema

Beltman, B., Broek, T., Maanen, K. & Vaneveld, K. (1996). Measures to develop a rich fen wetland landscape with a full range of successional stages. Ecological Engineering, 7, 299–313CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Belyea, L. R. & Lancaster, J. (1999). Assembly rules within a contingent ecology. Oikos, 86, 402–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Benedetti-Cecchi, L. (2000). Predicting direct and indirect interactions during succession in a mid-littoral rocky shore assemblage. Ecological Monographs, 70, 45–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Benedetti-Cecchi, L. & Cinelli, F. (1996). Patterns of disturbance and recovery in littoral rock pools: Nonhierarchical competition and spatial variability in secondary succession. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 135, 145–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bénito-Espinal, F. P. & Bénito-Espinal, E. (eds) (1991). L'Ouragan Hugo: Genese, Incidences Géographiques et Écologiques sur la Guadeloupe. Co-editors: Parc National de la Guadeloupe, Délégation Régionale a l'Action Culturelle, and Agence Guadeloupéenne de l'Environnement du Tourisme et des Loisirs. Martinique: Imprimerie Désormeaux, Fort-de-France

Berendse, F., Lammerts, E. J. & Olff, H. (1998). Soil organic matter accumulation and its implications for nitrogen mineralization and plant species composition during succession in coastal dune slacks. Plant Ecology, 137, 71–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Berkowitz, A. R., Canham, C. D. & Kelly, V. R. (1995). Competition vs. facilitation of tree seedling growth and survival in early successional communities. Ecology, 76, 1156–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bernhardt, K. G. (1992). Colonizing strategies on sandy sites at the tidal coast. Flora, 187, 271–81CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bernhardt, K. G. & Handke, P. (1992). Successional dynamics on newly created saline marsh soils. Oecologia, 11, 139–52Google Scholar

Bertness, M. D. & Callaway, R. M. (1994). Positive interactions in communities. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 9, 191–3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Berz, G. (1988). List of major natural disasters, 1960–1987. Natural Hazards, 1, 97–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Beyer, L., Bölter, M. & Seppelt, R. D. (2000). Nutrient and thermal regime, microbial biomass, and vegetation of Antarctic soils in the Windmill Islands region of East Antarctica (Wilkes Land). Arctic, Antarctic and Alpine Research, 32, 30–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bhiry, N. & Filion, L. (1996). Holocene plant succession in a dune-swale environment of southern Quebec: A macrofossil analysis. Ecoscience, 3, 330–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Binet, P. (1981). Short-term dynamics of minerals in arid ecosystems. In Arid Land Ecosystems: Structure, Functioning and Management, ed. D. W. Goodall, R. A. Perry & K. M. W. Howes, pp. 325–56. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Binggeli, P., Eakin, M., Macfayden, A., Power, J. & McConnell, J. (1992). Impact of the alien sea buckthorn (Hippophaë rhamnoides L.) on sand dune ecosystems in Ireland. In Coastal Dunes: Geomorphology, Ecology and Management for Conservation, ed. R. W. G. Carter, T. G. F. Curtis & M. J. Sheehy-Skeffington, pp. 325–37. Rotterdam: Balkema

Binkley, D. & Giardina, C. (1998). Why do tree species affect soils? The warp and woof of tree-soil interactions. Biogeochemistry, 42, 89–106CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Binkley, D., Suarez, F., Stottlemeyer, R. & Caldwell, B. (1997). Ecosystem development on terraces along the Kugurorok River, northwest Alaska. Ecoscience, 4, 311–18CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Birkeland, P. W. (1984). Soils and Geomorphology. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Birkeland, P. W., Burke, R. M. & Benedict, J. B. (1989). Pedogenic gradients for iron and aluminium accumulation and phosphorus depletion in arctic and alpine soils as a function of time and climate. Quaternary Research, 32, 193–204CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Birkemeier, W. A., Bichner, E. W., Scarborough, B. L., McConathy, M. A. & Eiser, W. C. (1991). Nearshore profile response caused by Hurricane Hugo. Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 8, 113–28Google Scholar

Birks, H. J. B. (1980a). Modern pollen assemblages and vegetational history of the moraines of the Klutlan Glacier and its surroundings, Yukon Territory, Canada. Quaternary Research, 14, 101–29CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Birks, H. J. B. (1980b). The present flora and vegetation of the moraines of the Klutlan Glacier, Yukon Territory, Canada. Quaternary Research, 14, 60–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bishop, J. G. & Schemske, D. W. (1998). Variation in flowering phenology and its consequences for lupines colonizing Mount St. Helens. Ecology, 79, 534–46CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bishop, S. C. & Chapin, F. S. III. (1989a). Establishment of Salix alaxensis on a gravel pad in Arctic Alaska. Journal of Applied Ecology, 26, 575–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bishop, S. C. & Chapin, F. S. III. (1989b). Patterns of natural revegetation on abandoned gravel pads in arctic Alaska. Journal of Applied Ecology, 26, 1073–81CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bliss, L. C. (2000). Arctic tundra and polar desert biome. In North American Terrestrial Vegetation, 2nd edition, ed. M. G. Barbour & W. D. Billings, pp. 1–41. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Bliss, L. C. & Gold, W. G. (1994). The patterning of plant communities and edaphic factors along a high arctic coastline: Implications for succession. Canadian Journal of Botany, 72, 1095–107CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bliss, L. C. & Gold, W. G. (1999). Vascular plant reproduction, establishment, and growth and the effects of cryptogamic crusts within a polar desert ecosystem. Canadian Journal of Botany, 77, 623–36CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Blizzard, A. W. (1931). Plant sociology and vegetational change on High Hill, Long Island, New York. Ecology, 12, 208–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Blundon, D. J. & Dale, M. R. T. (1990). Dinitrogen fixation (acetylene reduction) in primary succession near Mt. Robson, British Columbia. Arctic and Alpine Research, 22, 255–63CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Blundon, D. J., MacIsaac, D. A. & Dale, M. R. T. (1993). Nucleation during primary succession in the Canadian Rockies. Canadian Journal of Botany, 71, 1093–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Boag, B. & Yeates, G. W. (1998). Soil nematode biodiversity in terrestrial ecosystems. Biodiversity and Conservation, 7, 617–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Boerner, R. E. J. (1985). Alternate pathways of succession on the Lake Erie Islands. Vegetatio, 63, 35–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Boerner, R. E. J.DeMars, B. G. & Leicht, P. N. (1996). Spatial patterns of mycorrhizal infectiveness of soils along a successional chronosequence. Mycorrhizae, 6, 79–90CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bolin, R. & Stanford, L. (1999). Constructing vulnerability in the first world: The Northridge earthquake in southern California, 1994. In The Angry Earth, ed. A. Oliver-Smith & S. M. Hoffman, pp. 89–112. New York: Routledge

Bolling, J. D. & Walker, L. R. (2000). Plant and soil recovery along a series of abandoned desert roads. Journal of Arid Environments, 46, 1–24CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bolling, J. D. & Walker, L. R. (2002). Fertile island development around perennial shrubs across a Mojave Desert chronosequence. Western North American Naturalist, 61, 88–100Google Scholar

Bond, W. J. & van Wilgen, B. W. (1996). Fire and Plants. London: Chapman & Hall

Booth, D. T., Gores, J. K., Schuman, G. E. & Olson, R. A. (1999). Shrub densities on pre-1985 reclaimed mines in Wyoming. Restoration Ecology, 7, 24–32CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Borgegård, S.-O. & Rydin, H. (1989). Utilization of waste products and inorganic fertilizer in the restoration of iron mine tailings. Journal of Applied Ecology, 26, 1083–88CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bormann, B. T. & Sidle, R. C. (1990). Changes in productivity and distribution of nutrients in a chronosequence at Glacier Bay National Park, Alaska. Journal of Ecology, 78, 561–678CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bormann, F. H. & Likens, G. E. (1979). Patterns and Process in a Forested Ecosystem: Disturbance, Development, and the Steady State Based on the Hubbard Brook Ecosystem Study. New York: Springer

Bornkamm, R. (1984). Experimentell-ökologishce Untersuchungen zur Sukzession von ruderalen Pflanzengesellschaften auf unterschiedlichen Boden. II. Quantität und Qualität der Phytomasse. Flora, 175, 45–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bornkamm, R. (1985). Vegetation changes in herbaceous communities. In The Population Structure of Vegetation, ed. J. White, pp. 89–109. Dordrecht, Holland: JunkCrossRef

Bornkamm, R., Lee, J. A. & Seaward, M. R. D. (eds) (1982). Urban Ecology. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Bowers, J. E., Webb, R. H. & Pierson, E. A. (1997). Succession of desert plants on flow terraces, Grand Canyon, Arizona, USA. Journal of Arid Environments, 36, 67–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Braatne, J. H. & Bliss, L. C. (1999). Comparative physiological ecology of lupines colonizing early successional habitats on Mount St. Helens. Ecology, 80, 891–907CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Braatne, J. H. & Chapin, D. M. (1986). Comparative water relations of four subalpine plants at Mount St. Helens. In Mount St. Helens: Five Years Later, ed. S. A. C. Keller, pp. 163–72. Cheney, Washington: Eastern Washington University Press

Bradshaw, A. D. (1952). Populations of Agrostis tenuis resistant to lead and zinc poisoning. Nature, 169, 1098CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Bradshaw, A. D. (1983a). The restoration of mined land. In Conservation in Perspective, ed. A. Warren & F. B. Goldsmith, pp. 177–99. London: Wiley

Bradshaw, A. D. (1983b). The reconstruction of ecosystems. Journal of Applied Ecology, 20, 1–17CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bradshaw, A. D. (1987). Restoration: An acid test for ecology. In Restoration Ecology: A Synthetic Approach to Ecological Research, ed. W. R. Jordan III, M. E. Gilpin & J. D. Aber, pp. 23–9. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Bradshaw, A. D. & Chadwick, M. J. (1980). The Restoration of Land: The Ecology and Reclamation of Derelict and Degraded Land. Oxford: Blackwell

Bradshaw, A. D., Humphreys, M. O. & Johnson, M. S. (1978). The value of heavy metal tolerance in the revegetation of metalliferous mine wastes. In Environmental Management of Mineral Wastes, ed. G. T. Goodman & M. J. Chadwick, pp. 311–23. Alphen aan den Rijn, Netherlands: Sijthoff and Nordhoff

Brady, N. C. & Weil, R. R. (1998). The Nature and Properties of Soils, 12th edition. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall

Bramble, W. C. & Ashley, R. H. (1955). Natural revegetation of spoil banks in central Pennsylvania. Ecology, 36, 417–23CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Braun-Blanquet, J. (1932). Plant Sociology: The Study of Plant Communities. New York: Hafner. (English translation.)

Braun-Blanquet, J. (1964). Pflanzensociologie: Grundzüge der Vegetationskunde. Vienna: Springer-Verlag

Breitburg, D. L. (1985). Development of a subtidal epibenthic community: Factors affecting species composition and the mechanisms of succession. Oecologia, 65, 173–84CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Bretz, J. H. (1932). The Grand Coulee. New York: Special Publication of the American Geographical Society

Brittingham, S. & Walker, L. R. (2000). Facilitation of Yucca brevifolia recruitment by Mojave Desert shrubs. Western North American Naturalist, 60, 374–83Google Scholar

Brock, T. D. (1973). Primary colonization of Surtsey, with special reference to the blue-green algae. Oikos, 24, 239–43CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Brokaw, N. V. L. & Walker, L. R. (1991). Summary of the effects of Caribbean hurricanes on vegetation. Biotropica, 23, 442–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Brooker, R. W. & Callaghan, T. V. (1998). The balance between positive and negative plant interactions and its relationship to environmental gradients: A model. Oikos, 81, 196–207CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Brookes, P. C., Landman, A., Pruden, G. & Jenkinson, D. S. (1985). Chloroform fumigation and the release of soil nitrogen; a rapid direct extraction method to measure microbial biomass nitrogen in soil. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 17, 837–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Brown, J. H. (1995). Organisms and species as complex adaptive systems: Linking the biology of populations with the physics of ecosystems. In Linking Species and Ecosystems, ed. C. G. Jones & J. H. Lawton, pp. 16–24. New York: Chapman & HallCrossRef

Brown, L. R. (1999). Feeding nine billion. In State of the World 1999: The Millennium Edition, ed. L. R. Brown, C. Flavin, L. Starke & H. French, pp. 115–32. Washington, D.C.: Worldwatch Institute

Brown, S. C. & Bedford, B. L. (1997). Restoration of wetland vegetation with transplanted wetland soil: An experimental study. Wetlands, 17, 424–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Brown, V. K. & Gange, A. C. (1992). Secondary plant succession: How is it modified by insect herbivory?Vegetatio, 101, 3–13CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Brown, W. H., Merrill, E. D. & Yates, H. S. (1917). The revegetation of Volcano Island, Luzon, Philippine Islands, since the eruption of Taal Volcano in 1911. The Philippine Journal of Science, 12, 177–243Google Scholar

Bruno, J. F. (2000). Facilitation of cobble beach plant communities through habitat modification by Spartina alterniflora. Ecology, 81, 1179–92CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bruno, J. F. & Kennedy, G. W. (2000). Patch-size dependent habitat modification and facilitation on New England cobble beaches by Spartina alterniflora. Oecologia, 122, 98–108CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Bryant, J. P. & Chapin, F. S. III. (1986). Browsing-woody plant interactions during a boreal forest plant succession. In Forest Ecosystems in the Alaska Taiga, a Synthesis of Structure and Function, ed. K. Van Cleve, F. S. Chapin III, P. W. Flanagan, L. A. Viereck & C. T. Dyrness, pp. 213–25. New York: SpringerCrossRef

Bucknam, R. C., Hemphill-Haley, E. & Leopold, E. B. (1992). Abrupt uplift within the last 1700 years at Southern Puget Sound, Washington. Science, 258, 1611–14CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bullock, J. M. & Clarke, R. T. (2000). Long distance seed dispersal by wind measuring and modeling the tail of the curve. Oecologia, 124, 506–21CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bunting, M. J. & Warner, B. G. (1998). Hydroseral development in southern Ontario, patterns and controls. Journal of Biogeography, 25, 3–18CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Buol, S. W. (1994). Soils. In Changes in Land Use and Land Cover: A Global Perspective, ed. W. B. Meyer & B. L. Turner II, pp. 211–29. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Burbanck, M. P. & Phillips, D. L. (1983). Evidence of plant succession on granite outcrops of the Georgia Piedmont. American Midland Naturalist, 109, 94–104CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Burleigh, S. H. & Dawson, J. O. (1994). Occurrence of Myrica-nodulating Frankia in Hawaiian volcanic soils. Plant and Soil, 164, 283–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Burrows, C. J. (1990). Processes of Vegetation Change. London: Unwin Hyman

Burton, P. J. (1982). The effect of temperature and light on Meterosideros polymorpha seed germination. Pacific Science, 36, 229–40Google Scholar

Burton, P. J. & Mueller-Dombois, D. (1984). Response of Metrosideros polymorpha seedlings to experimental canopy opening. Ecology, 65, 779–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Busch, D. E. & Smith, S. D. (1995). Mechanisms associated with decline of woody species in riparian ecosystems of the southwestern U.S.Ecological Monographs, 65, 347–70CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bush, M. B., Whittaker, R. J. & Partomihardjo, T. (1992). Multiple Krakatau pathways, divergence of types in lowland forests. GeoJournal, 28, 185–99Google Scholar

Cahill, J. F. Jr., Castelli, J. P. & Casper, B. B. (2001). The herbivory uncertainty principle: visiting plants can alter herbivory. Ecology, 82, 307–12CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cain, S. A. (1959). Henry Allan Gleason – eminent ecologist. Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America, 40, 105–10Google Scholar

Calderón, F. J. (1993). The role of mycorrhizae in the nutrient absorptive strategy of important landslide colonizers. M.S. thesis, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras

Caldwell, M. M., Dawson, T. E. & Richards, J. H. (1998). Hydraulic lift: Consequences of water efflux from the roots of plants. Oecologia, 113, 151–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Callaway, R. M. (1992). Effect of shrubs on recruitment of Quercus douglasii and Quercus lobata in California. Ecology, 73, 2118–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Callaway, R. M. (1995). Positive interactions among plants. Botanical Reviews, 61, 306–49CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Callaway, R. M., Nadkarni, N. M. & Mahall, B. E. (1991). Facilitation and interference of Quercus douglasii on understory productivity in central California. Ecology, 72, 1484–99CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Callaway, R. M. & Walker, L. R. (1997). Competition and facilitation: A synthetic approach to interactions in plant communities. Ecology, 78, 1958–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Camill, P. (1999). Peat accumulation and succession following permafrost thaw in boreal peatlands of Manitoba, Canada. Ecoscience, 6, 592–602CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Camp, R. J. & Knight, R. L. (1997). Cliff bird and plant communities in Joshua Tree National Park, California, USA. Natural Areas Journal, 17, 110–17Google Scholar

Campbell, B. M., Lynam, T. & Hatton, J. C. (1990). Small-scale patterning in the recruitment of forest species during succession in tropical dry forest, Mozambique. Vegetatio, 87, 51–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Campbell, J. E. & Gibson, D. J. (2001). The effect of seeds of exotic species transported via horse dung on vegetation along trail corridors. Plant Ecology, 157, 23–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Carlquist, S. (1974). Island Biology. New York: Columbia University Press

Carlquist, S. (1994). The first arrivals. Natural History, 91, 20–30Google Scholar

Carlsson, R. B. & Callaghan, T. V. (1991). Positive plant interactions in tundra vegetation and the importance of shelter. Journal of Ecology, 79, 973–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Carpenter, F. L. (1976). Plant-pollinator interactions in Hawaii: Pollination energetics of Metrosideros collina (Myrtaceae). Ecology, 57, 1125–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Carpenter, S. E., Trappe, J. M. & Ammirati, J. Jr. (1987). Observations of fungal succession in the Mount St. Helens devastation zone, 1980–1983. Canadian Journal of Botany, 65, 716–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Carr, G. D., Powell, E. A. & Kyhos, D. W. (1986). Self-incompatibility in the Hawaiian Madiinae (Compositae): An exception to Baker's rule. Evolution, 40, 430–4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Carreiro, M. M., Sinsabaugh, R. L., Repert, D. A. & Parkhurst, D. F. (2000). Microbial enzyme shifts explain litter decay responses to simulated nitrogen deposition. Ecology, 81, 2359–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Carter, J. W., Carpenter, A. L., Foster, M. S. & Jessee, W. N. (1985). Benthic succession on an artificial reef designed to support a kelp-reef community. Bulletin of Marine Science, 37, 86–113Google Scholar

Castillo, S., Popma, J. & Moreno-Casasola, P. (1991). Coastal sand dune vegetation of Tabasco and Campeche, Mexico. Journal of Vegetation Science, 2, 73–88CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cázares, E. (1992). Mycorrhizal fungi and their relationship to plant succession in subalpine habitats. Ph.D. dissertation, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon

Chadwick, H. W. & Dalke, P. D. (1965). Plant succession on dune sands in Fremont County, Idaho. Ecology, 46, 765–80CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chadwick, O. A., Derry, L. A., Vitousek, P. M., Huebert, B. J. & Hedin, L. O. (1999). Changing sources of nutrients during four million years of ecosystem development. Nature, 397, 491–99CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Challies, C. N. (1975). Feral pigs (Sus scrofa) on Auckland Island: Status and effects on vegetation and nesting sea birds. New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 2, 479–90CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chambers, J. C. & Linnerooth, A. R. (2001). Restoring riparian meadows currently dominated by Artemisia using alternative state concepts – the establishment component. Applied Vegetation Science, 4, 157–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chan, Y. S. G., Chu, L. M. & Wong, M. H. (1997). Influence of landfill factors on plants and soil fauna – an ecological perspective. Environmental Pollution, 97, 39–44CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Chapin, D. M. (1995). Physiological and morphological attributes of two colonizing plant species on Mount St. Helens. American Midland Naturalist, 133, 76–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chapin, D. M. & Bliss, L. C. (1989). Seedling growth, physiology, and survivorship in a subalpine, volcanic environment. Ecology, 70, 1325–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chapin, D. M., Bliss, L. C. & Bledsoe, C. S. (1991). Environmental regulations of nitrogen fixation in a high arctic lowland ecosystem. Canadian Journal of Botany, 69, 2744–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chapin, F. S. III (1993). Physiological controls over plant establishment in primary succession. In Primary Succession on Land, ed. J. Miles & D. H. Walton, pp. 161–78. Oxford: Blackwell

Chapin, F. S. III (1995). New cog in the nitrogen cycle. Nature, 377, 199–200CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chapin, F. S. III, Vitousek, P. M. & Cleve, K. (1986). The nature of nutrient limitation in plant communities. The American Naturalist, 127, 48–58CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chapin, F. S. III & Walker, L. R. (1993). Direct and indirect effects of calcium sulfate and nitrogen on growth and succession of trees on the Tanana River floodplain, interior Alaska. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 23, 995–1000CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chapin, F. S. III, Walker, L. R., Fastie, C. L. & Sharman, L. C. (1994). Mechanisms of primary succession following deglaciation at Glacier Bay, Alaska. Ecological Monographs, 64, 149–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chapman, C. A. & Onderdonk, D. A. (1998). Forests without primates: Primate/plant codependency. American Journal of Primatology, 45, 127–413.0.CO;2-Y>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Charley, J. L. & West, N. E. (1975). Plant-induced soil chemical patterns in some shrub-dominated semi-desert ecosystems of Utah. Journal of Ecology, 63, 945–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chen, R. G. & Twilley, R. R. (1998). A gap dynamic model of mangrove forest development along gradients of soil salinity and nutrient resources. Journal of Ecology, 86, 37–51CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cheng, L. & Birch, M. C. (1987). Insect flotsam: an unstudied marine resource. Ecological Entomology, 3, 87–97CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cherrett, J. M. (1989). Key concepts: the results of a survey of our members' opinions. In Ecological Concepts: The Contribution of Ecology to an Understanding of the Natural World, ed. M. Cherrett, pp. 1–16. Oxford: Blackwell

Chestnut, T. J., Zarin, D. J., McDowell, W. H. & Keller, M. (1999). A nitrogen budget for late-successional hillslope tabonuco forest, Puerto Rico. Biogeochemistry, 46, 85–108CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chiba, N. & Hirose, T. (1993). Nitrogen acquisition and use in three perennials in the early stage of primary succession. Functional Ecology, 7, 287–92CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Childress, W. M., Crisafulli, C. M. & Rykiel, E. J. (1998). Comparison of Markovian matrix models of a primary successional plant community. Ecological Modelling, 107, 92–102CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Choi, Y. D. & Wali, M. K. (1995). The role of Panicum virgatum (switch grass) in the revegetation of iron-mine tailings in northern New York. Restoration Ecology, 3, 123–32CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Christensen, N. L. & Peet, R. K. (1981). Convergence during secondary forest succession. Journal of Ecology, 72, 25–36CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chu, L. M. & Bradshaw, A. D. (1996). The value of pulverized refuel fines (PRF) as a substitute for topsoil in land reclamation. 1. Field studies. Journal of Applied Ecology, 33, 851–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cicolani, B. (1992). Macrochelid mites (Acari: Mesostigmata) occurring in animal droppings in the pasture ecosystem in central Italy. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 40, 47–60CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Clark, J. S. (1998). Why trees migrate so fast: Confronting theory with dispersal biology and the paleorecord. The American Naturalist, 152, 204–24CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Clark, J. S., Fastie, C., Hurtt, G., Jackson, S. T., Johnson, C., King, G. A., Lewis, M., Lynch, J., Pacala, S., Prentice, C., Schupp, E. W., Webb, T. III & Wyckoff, P. (1998). Reid's paradox of rapid plant migration. BioScience, 48, 13–24CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Clark, J. S., Silman, M., Kern, R., Macklin, E. & Hille Ris Lambers, J. (1999). Seed dispersal near and far: Patterns across temperate and tropical forests. Ecology, 80, 1475–95CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Clarkson, B. D. (1990). A review of vegetation development following recent (< 450 years) volcanic disturbance in North Island, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 14, 59–71Google Scholar

Clarkson, B. R. & Clarkson, B. D. (1983). Mt. Tarawera: 2. Rates of change in the vegetation and flora of the high domes. New Zealand Journal of Botany, 6, 107–19Google Scholar

Clarkson, B. R. & Clarkson, B. D. (1995). Recent vegetation changes on Mount Tarawera, Rotorua, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany, 33, 339–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Clein, J. S. & Schimel, J. P. (1995). Nitrogen turnover and availability during succession from alder to poplar in Alaskan taiga forests. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 27, 743–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Clements, F. E. (1916). Plant Succession: An Analysis of the Development of Vegetation. Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication 242CrossRef

Clements, F. E. (1928). Plant Succession and Indicators. New York: H. W. Wilson

Clements, F. E. (1936). Nature and structure of the climax. Journal of Ecology, 24, 252–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Coaldrake, J. E. (1962). The coastal sand dunes of southern Queensland. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland, 72, 101–16Google Scholar

Cody, M. L. (1981). Citation classic. Current Contents, 12, 14Google Scholar

Cody, M. (2000). Slow-motion population dynamics in Mojave Desert perennial plants. Journal of Vegetation Science, 11, 351–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cogbill, C. V. (1996). Black growth and fiddlebutts: The nature of old-growth red spruce. In Eastern Old-Growth Forests: Prospects for Rediscovery and Recovery, ed. M. B. Davis, pp. 113–25. Washington, D.C.: Island Press

Cohen, J. E. (1995). How Many People Can the Earth Support? New York: Norton

Coleman, D. C. & Crossley, D. A. Jr. (1996). Fundamentals of Soil Ecology. New York: Academic Press

Colinvaux, P. A. (1973). Introduction to Ecology. New York: Wiley

Collins, B. S. & Quinn, J. A. (1982). Displacement of Andropogon scoparius on the New Jersey piedmont by the successional shrub Myrica pensylvanica. American Journal of Botany, 69, 680–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Collins, S. L., Mitchell, G. S. & Klahr, S. C. (1989). Vegetation-environment relationships in a rock outcrop community in Southern Oklahoma. American Midland Naturalist, 122, 339–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Compton, S. G., Ross, S. J. & Thornton, I. W. B. (1994). Pollinator limitation of fig tree reproduction on the island of Anak Krakatau (Indonesia). Biotropica, 26, 180–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Conn, C. E. & Day, F. P. (1996). Response of root and cotton strip decay to nitrogen amendment along a barrier island dune chronosequence. Canadian Journal of Botany, 74, 276–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Connell, J. H. (1978). Diversity in tropical rain forests and coral reefs. Science, 199, 1302–10CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Connell, J. H. (1983). On the prevalence and relative importance on interspecific competition: Evidence from field experiments. The American Naturalist, 122, 661–96CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Connell, J. H. (1990). Apparent versus “real” competition in plants. In Perspectives in Plant Competition, ed. J. B. Grace & G. D. Tilman, pp. 9–26. New York: Academic PressCrossRef

Connell, J. H. & Keough, M. J. (1985). Disturbance and patch dynamics of subtidal marine animals on hard substrata. In The Ecology of Natural Disturbance and Patch Dynamics, ed. S. T. A. Pickett & P. S. White, pp. 125–52. New York: Academic Press

Connell, J. H., Noble, I. R. & Slatyer, R. O. (1987). On the mechanisms producing successional change. Oikos, 50, 136–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Connell, J. H. & Slatyer, R. O. (1977). Mechanisms of succession in natural communities and their roles in community stability and organization. The American Naturalist, 111, 1119–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cook, J. E. (1996). Implications of modern succession theory for habitat typing: A review. Forest Science, 42, 67–75Google Scholar

Cooke, J. A. (1999). Mining. In Ecosystems of Disturbed Ground, ed. L. R. Walker, pp. 365–84. Amsterdam: Elsevier

Coomes, D. A. & Grubb, P. J. (2000). Impacts of root competition in forests and woodlands: a theoretical framework and review of experiments. Ecological Monographs, 70, 171–207CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cooper, R. & Rudolph, E. D. (1953). The role of lichens in soil formation and plant succession. Ecology, 34, 805–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cooper, W. S. (1913). The climax forest of Isle Royale, Lake Superior and its development. Botanical Gazette, 55, 1–44, 115–40, 189–235CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cooper, W. S. (1916). Plant successions in the Mount Robson region, British Columbia. The Plant World, 19, 211–38Google Scholar

Cooper, W. S. (1919). Ecology of the strand vegetation of the Pacific coast of North America. Carnegie Institution of Washington Yearbook, 18, 96–9Google Scholar

Cooper, W. S. (1923). The recent ecological history of Glacier Bay, Alaska: II. The present vegetation cycle. Ecology, 4, 223–46CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cooper, W. S. (1931). A third expedition to Glacier Bay, Alaska. Ecology, 12, 61–95CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cooper, W. S. (1939). A fourth expedition to Glacier Bay, Alaska. Ecology, 20, 130–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Corkidi, L. & Rincón, E. (1997). Arbuscular mycorrhizae in a tropical sand dune ecosystem of the Gulf of Mexico, 2: Effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on the growth of species distributed in different early successional stages. Mycorrhiza, 7, 17–23CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cowles, H. C. (1899). The ecological relations of the vegetation on the sand dunes of Lake Michigan. Botanical Gazette, 27, 95–117, 167–202, 281–308, 361–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cowles, H. C. (1901). The physiographic ecology of Chicago and vicinity: A study of the origin, development, and classification of plant societies. Botanical Gazette, 31, 73–108, 145–82CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cox, P. A. & Elmquist, T. (2000). Pollinator extinction in the Pacific Islands. Conservation Biology, 14, 1237–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Coxson, D. S. (1987). Net photosynthetic response patterns of the basidiomycete lichen Cora pavonia (Web.) E. Fries from the tropical volcano La Soufrière (Guadeloupe). Oecologia, 73, 454–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Coyne, M. S., Zhai, Q., Mackown, C. T. & Barnhisel, R. I. (1998). Gross nitrogen transformation rates in soil at a surface coal mine site reclaimed for prime farmland use. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 30, 1099–106CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Craft, C., Reader, J., Sacco, J. N. & Broome, S. W. (1999). Twenty-five years of ecosystem development of constructed Spartina alterniflora (Loisel) marshes. Ecological Applications, 9, 1405–19CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Crampton, C. (1987). Soils, vegetation, and permafrost across an active meander of Indian River, Central Yukon, Canada. Catena, 14, 157–63CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Crawford, R. L., Sugg, P. M. & Edwards, E. S. (1995). Spider arrival and primary establishment on terrain depopulated by volcanic eruption at Mount St. Helens, Washington. American Midland Naturalist, 133, 60–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Crawley, M. J. (1983). Herbivory. Oxford: Blackwell

Crawley, M. J. (1987). What makes a community invasible? In Colonization, Succession and Stability, ed. A. J. Gray, M. J. Crawley & P. J. Edward, pp. 429–53. Oxford: Blackwell

Crawley, M. J. (1997). Biodiversity. In Plant Ecology, 2nd edition, ed. M. J. Crawley, pp. 595–632. London: Blackwell

Crews, T. (1999). The presence of nitrogen fixing legumes in terrestrial communities: Evolutionary vs. ecological considerations. Biogeochemistry, 46, 233–46CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Crews, T., Kitayama, K., Fownes, J., Riley, R., Herbert, D., Mueller-Dombois, D. & Vitousek, P. (1995). Changes in soil phosphorus fractions and ecosystem dynamics across a long chronosequence in Hawaii. Ecology, 76, 1407–24CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Crocker, R. L. (1952). Soil genesis and the pedogenic factors. Quarterly Review of Biology, 27, 139–68CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Crocker, R. L. & Dickson, B. A. (1957). Soil development on the recessional moraines of the Herbert and Mendenhall Glaciers, south-eastern Alaska. Journal of Ecology, 45, 169–85CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Crocker, R. L. & Major, J. (1955). Soil development in relation to vegetation and surface age at Glacier Bay, Alaska. Journal of Ecology, 43, 427–48CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cullen, W. R., Wheater, C. P. & Dunleavy, P. J. (1998). Establishment of species-rich vegetation on reclaimed limestone quarry faces in Derbyshire, U.K.Biological Conservation, 84, 25–33CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Curtis, J. T. (1959). The Vegetation of Wisconsin. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press

Dahlskog, S. (1982). Successions in a Lapland mountain delta. Meddelanden fran Växtbiologiska Institutionen, 3, 54–62Google Scholar

Daily, G. (ed.) (1997). Nature's Services. Washington, D.C.: Island Press

Dale, V. H., Lugo, A. E., MacMahon, J. A. & Pickett, S. T. A. (1998). Management implications of large, infrequent disturbances. Ecosystems, 1, 546–557CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dancer, W. S., Handley, J. F. & Bradshaw, A. D. (1977). Nitrogen accumulation in kaolin mining wastes in Cornwall. I. Natural Communities. Plant and Soil, 48, 153–67CrossRefGoogle Scholar

D'Antonio, C. M., Dudley, T. L. & Mack, M. (1999). Disturbance and biological invasions: direct effects and feedbacks. In Ecosystems of Disturbed Ground, Ecosystems of the World 16, ed. L. R. Walker, pp. 413–52. Amsterdam: Elsevier

Danin, A. (1991). Plant adaptations in desert dunes. Journal of Arid Environments, 21, 193–212Google Scholar

Da Silva, J. M. C., Uhl, C. & Murray, G. (1996). Plant succession, landscape management, and the ecology of frugivorous birds in abandoned Amazonian pasture. Conservation Biology, 10, 491–503CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Davey, M. C. & Rothery, P. (1993). Primary colonization by microalgae in relation to spatial variation in edaphic factors on Antarctic fell-field soils. Journal of Ecology, 81, 335–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Davidson, D. W. (1993). The effects of herbivory and granivory on terrestrial plant succession. Oikos, 68, 23–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Davis, B. N. K., Lakhani, K. H., Brown, M. C. & Park, D. G. (1985). Early seral communities in a limestone quarry: An experimental study of treatment effects on cover and richness of vegetation. Journal of Applied Ecology, 22, 473–90CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Davis, M. A., Grime, J. P. & Thompson, K. (2000). Fluctuating resources in plant communities: a general theory of invisibility. Journal of Ecology, 88, 528–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Davis, W. M. (1899). The geographical cycle. Geographical Journal, 14, 481–504CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dawson, J. O., Christensen, T. W. & Timmons, R. G. (1983). Nodulation by Frankia of Alnus glutinosa seeded in soil from different topographic positions on an Illinois spoil bank. The Actinomycetes, 17, 50–60Google Scholar

Day, T. & Wright, R. (1989). Positive plant spatial associations with Eriogonum ovalifolium in primary succession on cinder cones: Seed trapping nurse plants. Vegetatio, 80, 37–45CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dean, T. A. & Hurd, L. E. (1980). Development in an estuarine fouling community: The influence of early colonists on later arrivals. Oecologia, 46, 295–301CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Debussche, M., Lepart, J. & Molina, J. (1985). La dissémination des plantes à fruits charnus par les oiseaux: Rôle de la structure de la végétation et impact sur la succession en région méditerranéenne. Acta Oecologica, 6, 65–80Google Scholar

Degens, B. P. & Harris, J. A. (1997). Development of a physiological approach to measuring the catabolic diversity of soil microbial communities. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 29, 1309–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Jong, N. H. (2000). Woody plant restoraton and natural regeneration in wet meadows at Coomonderry Swamp on the south coast of New South Wales. Marine and Freshwater Research, 51, 81–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Jong, T. J., Klinkhamer, P. G. L. & Heiden, J. L. H. (1995). The effect of water and mycorrhizal infection on the distribution of Carlina vulgaris on sand dunes. Ecography, 18, 384–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kovel, C. G. F., Mierlo, A. J. E. M., Wilms, Y. J. O. & Berendse, F. (2000). Carbon and nitrogen in soil and vegetation at sites differing in successional age. Plant Ecology, 149, 43–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Delgadillo, C. & Cárdenas, A. (1995). Observations on moss succession on Parícutin Volcano, Mexico. The Bryologist, 98, 606–8Google Scholar

del Moral, R. (1983). Initial recovery of subalpine vegetation on Mount St. Helens. American Midland Naturalist, 109, 72–80CrossRefGoogle Scholar

del Moral, R. (1984). The impact of the Olympic marmot on subalpine vegetation structure. American Journal of Botany, 71, 1228–36CrossRefGoogle Scholar

del Moral, R. (1993a). Understanding dynamics of early succession on Mount St. Helens. Journal of Vegetation Science, 4, 223–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar

del Moral, R. (1993b). Mechanisms of primary succession on volcanoes: A view from Mount St. Helens. In Primary Succession on Land, ed. J. Miles & D. H. Walton, pp. 79–100. Oxford: Blackwell

del Moral, R. (1998). Early succession on lahars spawned by Mount St. Helens. American Journal of Botany, 85, 820–8CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

del Moral, R. (1999a). Plant succession on pumice at Mount St. Helens, Washington. American Midland Naturalist, 141, 101–14CrossRefGoogle Scholar

del Moral, R. (1999b). Predictability of primary successional wetlands on pumice, Mount St. Helens. Madroño, 46, 177–86Google Scholar

del Moral, R. (2000a). Succession and species turnover on Mount St. Helens, Washington. Acta Phytogeographica Suecica, 85, 53–62Google Scholar

del Moral, R. (2000b). Local species turnover on Mount St. Helens. In Proc. 41st Symposium of the IUVS, ed. P. White, pp. 195–7. Uppsala: Opulus Press

del Moral, R. & Bliss, L. C. (1993). Mechanisms of primary succession: Insights resulting from the eruption of Mount St. Helens. Advances in Ecological Research, 24, 1–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar

del Moral, R. & Clampitt, C. A. (1985). Growth of native plant species on recent volcanic substrates from Mount St. Helens. American Midland Naturalist, 114, 374–83CrossRefGoogle Scholar

del Moral, R. & Grishin, S. Yu. (1999). Volcanic disturbances and ecosystem recovery. In Ecosystems of Disturbed Ground, Ecosystems of the World 16, ed. L. R. Walker, pp. 137–60. Amsterdam: Elsevier

del Moral, R. & Jones, C. C. (2002). Early spatial development of vegetation on pumice at Mount St. Helens. Plant Ecology, 161, 9–22CrossRefGoogle Scholar

del Moral, R. & Muller, C. H. (1969). Fog-drip: A mechanism of toxin transport from Eucalyptus globulus. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 96, 467–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar

del Moral, R. & Muller, C. H. (1970). The allelopathic effects of Eucalyptus camaldulensis. American Midland Naturalist, 83, 254–82CrossRefGoogle Scholar

del Moral, R. & Standley, L. A. (1979). Pollination of angiosperms in contrasting coniferous forests. American Journal of Botany, 66, 26–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar

del Moral, R., Titus, J. H. & Cook, A. M. (1995). Early primary succession on Mount St. Helens, Washington, USA. Journal of Vegetation Science, 6, 107–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar

del Moral, R., Willis, R. J. & Ashton, D. H. (1978). Suppression of coastal heath vegetation by Eucalyptus baxteri. Australian Journal of Botany, 16, 102–19Google Scholar

del Moral, R. & Wood, D. M. (1993a). Early primary succession on a barren volcanic plain at Mount St. Helens, Washington. American Journal of Botany, 80, 981–92CrossRefGoogle Scholar

del Moral, R. & Wood, D. M. (1993b). Early primary succession on the volcano Mount St. Helens. Journal of Vegetation Science, 4, 223–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Demarais, S., Tazik, D. J., Guertin, P. J. & Jorgensen, E. E. (1999). Disturbance associated with military exercises. In Ecosystems of Disturbed Ground, Ecosystems of the World 16, ed. L. R. Walker, pp. 385–96. Amsterdam: Elsevier

Densmore, R. V. (1992). Succession on an Alaskan tundra disturbance with and without assisted revegetation with grass. Arctic and Alpine Research, 24, 238–43CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Densmore, R. V. (1994). Succession on regraded placer mine spoil in Alaska, USA, in relation to initial site characteristics. Arctic and Alpine Research, 26, 354–63CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Scally, F. A. & Gardner, J. S. (1994). Characteristics and mitigation of the snow avalanche hazard in Kaghan Valley, Pakistan Himalaya. Natural Hazards, 9, 197–213CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Diamond, J. M. (1975). The assembly of species communities. In Ecology and Evolution of Communities, ed. M. L. Cody & J. M. Diamond, pp. 342–444. Cambridge, Massachusetts (USA): Harvard University Press

Díaz, S., Cabido, M. & Casanoves, F. (1998). Plant functional traits and environmental filters at a regional scale. Journal of Vegetation Science, 9, 113–22CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Díaz, S., Cabido, M. & Casanoves, F. (1999). Functional implications of trait-environmental linkages in plant communities. In Ecological Assembly Rules: Perspectives, Advances, Retreats, ed. E. Weiher & P. Keddy, pp. 338–62. Cambridge: Cambridge University PressCrossRef

Dickson, B. A. & Crocker, R. L. (1953). A chronosequence of soils and vegetation near Mt. Shasta, California. I. Definition of the ecosystem investigated and features of the plant succession. Journal of Soil Science, 4, 123–41CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dickson, L. G. (2000). Constraints to nitrogen fixation by cryptogamic crusts in a polar desert ecosystem, Devon Island, N.W.T., Canada. Arctic, Antarctic and Alpine Research, 32, 40–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dlugosch, K. & del Moral, R. (1999). Vegetational heterogeneity along elevational gradients. Northwest Science, 43, 12–18Google Scholar

Dobson, A. P., Bradshaw, A. D. & Baker, A. J. M. (1997). Hopes for the future: Restoration ecology and conservation biology. Science, 277, 515–22CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Docters van Leeuwen, W. M. (1936). Krakatau 1883–1983. Annales du Jardin Botanique de Buitenzorg, 46/47, 1–506Google Scholar

Doing, H. (1985). Coastal fore dune zonation and succession in various parts of the world. Vegetatio, 61, 65–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Donnegan, J. A. & Rebertus, A. H. (1999). Rates and mechanisms of subalpine forest succession along an environmental gradient. Ecology, 80, 1370–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Douglas, D. A. (1987). Growth of Salix setchelliana on a Kluane River point bar, Yukon Territory, Canada. Arctic and Alpine Research, 19, 35–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dragovich, D. & Patterson, J. (1995). Conditions of rehabilitated coal-mines in the Hunter Valley, Australia. Land Degradation and Rehabilitation, 6, 29–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Drake, D. (1990). Communities as assembled structures: Do rules govern pattern?Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 5, 159–64CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Drake, D. R. (1998). Relationships among the seed rain, seed bank and vegetation of a Hawaiian forest. Journal of Vegetation Science, 9, 103–12CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Drake, D. R. & Mueller-Dombois, D. (1993). Population development of rain forest trees on a chronosequence of Hawaiian lava flows. Ecology, 74, 1012–19CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Drake, J. A. (1991). Community-assembly mechanics and the structure of an experimental species ensemble. The American Naturalist, 137, 1–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Drake, J. A., Huxel, G. R. & Hewitt, C. L. (1996). Microcosms as models for generating and testing community theory. Ecology, 77, 670–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Drury, W. H. (1956). Bog flats and physiographic processes in the upper Kuskokwim River Region, Alaska. Contributions from the Gray Herbarium, 178, 1–130Google Scholar

Drury, W. H. & Nisbet, I. C. T. (1973). Succession. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, 54, 331–68Google Scholar

Dublin, H. T., Sinclair, R. E. & McGlade, J. (1990). Elephants and fire as causes of multiple stable states in the Serengeti-Mara woodlands. Journal of Animal Ecology, 59, 1147–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dulohery, C. J., Kolka, R. K. & McKevlin, M. R. (2000). Effects of a willow overstory on planted seedlings in a bottomland restoration. Ecological Engineering, 15(supplement), S57–S66CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Duncan, R. P. (1993). Flood disturbance and the coexistence of species in a lowland podocarp forest, south Westland, New Zealand. Journal of Ecology, 81, 403–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Duncan, R. S. & Duncan, V. E. (2000). Forest succession and distance from forest edge in an Afro-tropical grassland. Biotropica, 32, 33–41CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dynesius, M. & Nilsson, C. (1994). Fragmentation and flow regulation of river systems in the northern third of the world. Science, 266, 753–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dyrness, C. T. & Cleve, K. (1993). Control of surface soil chemistry in early-successional floodplain soils along the Tanana River, interior Alaska. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 23, 979–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Early, M. & Goff, M. L. (1986). Arthropod succession patterns in exposed carrion on the island of O'ahu, Hawaiian Islands, USA. Journal of Medical Entomology, 23, 520–31CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Ebersole, J. J. (1987). Short-term vegetation recovery at an Alaskan arctic coastal plain site. Arctic and Alpine Research, 19, 442–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Eccles, N. S., Esler, K. J. & Cowling, R. M. (1999). Spatial pattern analysis in Namaqualand desert plant communities: Evidence for general positive interactions. Plant Ecology, 142, 71–85CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Edwards, J. S. (1988). Life in the allobiosphere. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 3, 111–14CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Edwards, J. S. & Sugg, P. (1993). Anthropod fallout as a resource in the recolonization of Mount St. Helens. Ecology, 74, 954–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Edwards, P. J. & Gillman, M. P. (1987). Herbivores and plant succession. In Colonization, Succession and Stability, ed. A. J. Gray, J. J. Crawley & P. J. Edwards, pp. 482–501. Symposium of the British Ecological Society, vol. 26. Oxford: Blackwell

Eggler, W. A. (1941). Primary succession of volcanic deposits in southern Idaho. Ecological Monographs, 3, 277–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Eggler, W. A. (1963). Plant life of Parícutin volcano, Mexico, eight years after activity ceased. American Midland Naturalist, 69, 38–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Eggler, W. A. (1971). Quantitative studies of vegetation on sixteen young lava flows on the island of Hawaii. Tropical Ecology, 12, 66–100Google Scholar

Egler, F. E. (1951). A commentary on American plant ecology based on the textbooks of 1947–1949. Ecology, 32, 673–95CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Egler, F. E. (1954). Vegetation science concepts I. Initial floristic composition, a factor in old-field vegetation development. Vegetatio, 4, 412–17CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ehrenfeld, J. G. (1990). Dynamics and processes of barrier island vegetation. Review of Aquatic Science, 2, 437–80Google Scholar

Ehrenfeld, J. G. (2000). Defining the limits of restoration: The need for realistic goals. Restoration Ecology, 8, 2–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ehrenfeld, J. G. & Scott, N. (2001). Invasive species and the soil: effects on organisms and ecosystem processes. Ecological Applications, 11, 1259–60CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Elba de Pietri, D. (1992). Alien shrubs in a national park: Can they help in the recovery of natural degraded forest?Biological Conservation, 62, 127–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar

El-Baz, F. (1992). Preliminary observations of environmental damage due to the Gulf War. Natural Resources Forum, 16, 71–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Elgersma, A. M. (1998). Primary forest succession on poor sandy soils as related to site factors. Biodiversity and Conservation, 7, 193–206CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Eliason, S. A. & Allen, E. B. (1997). Exotic grass competition in suppressing native shrubland reestablishment. Restoration Ecology, 5, 245–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ellenberg, H. (1956). Aufgaben und Methoden der Vegetationskunde. Stuttgart: Eugen Ulmer

Ellison, A. M. (2000). Mangrove restoration: Do we know enough?Restoration Ecology, 8, 219–29CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Emmer, I. M. & Sevink, J. (1994). Temporal and vertical changes in the humus form profile during a primary succession of Pinus sylvestris. Plant and Soil, 167, 281–95CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Engstrom, D. R. (ed.) (1995). Proceedings of the 3rd Glacier Bay Science Symposium, 1993. Anchorage, Alaska: National Park Service

Engstrom, D. R., Fritz, S. C., Almendinger, J. E. & Juggins, S. (2000). Chemical and biological trends during lake evolution in recently deglaciated terrain. Nature, 408, 161–6CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Eriksson, O. (2000). Seed dispersal and colonization ability of plants – Assessment and implications for conservation. Folia Geobotanica, 35, 115–23CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Eriksson, O. & Ehrlen, J. (1992). Seed and microsite limitation of recruitment in plant populations. Oecologia, 91, 360–4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Eriksson, O. & Eriksson, A. (1998). Effects of arrival order and seed size on germination of grassland plants: Are there assembly rules during recruitment?Ecological Research, 13, 229–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ernst, A. (1908). The New Flora of the Volcanic Island of Krakatau. Translation by A. C. Seward. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Ernst, W. H. O., Slings, O. L. & Nelissen, H. J. M. (1996). Pedogenesis in coastal wet dune slacks after sod-cutting in relation to revegetation. Plant and Soil, 180, 219–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ernst, W. H. O., Duin, W. E. & Oolbekking, G. T. (1984). Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza in dune vegetation. Acta Botanica Neerlandica, 33, 151–60CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Escudero, A. (1996). Community patterns on exposed cliffs in a Mediterranean calcareous mountain. Vegetatio, 125, 99–110CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Facelli, J. M. & D'Anela, E. (1990). Directionality, convergence and the rate of change during early succession in the Inland Pampa, Argentina. Journal of Vegetation Science, 1, 255–60CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Facelli, J. M. & Pickett, S. T. A. (1990). Markovian chains and the role of history in succession. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 5, 27–30CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Fagan, W. F. & Bishop, J. G. (2000). Trophic interactions during primary succession: Herbivores slow a plant reinvasion at Mount St. Helens. The American Naturalist, 155, 238–51CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Farrell, T. M. (1991). Models and mechanisms of succession: An example from a rocky intertidal community. Ecological Monographs, 61, 95–113CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Fastie, C. L. (1995). Causes and ecosystem consequences of multiple pathways on primary succession at Glacier Bay, Alaska. Ecology, 76, 1899–916CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Fenner, M. (1985). Seed Ecology. London: Chapman & Hall

Ferreira, S. M. & Aarde, R. J. (1999). Habitat associations and competition in Mastomys-Saccostomus-Aethomys assemblages on coastal dune forests. African Journal of Ecology, 37, 121–36CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Fierro, A., Angers, A. D. & Beauchamp, C. J. (1999). Restoration of ecosystem function in an abandoned sandpit, plant and soil responses to paper de-inking sludge. Journal of Applied Ecology, 36, 244–53CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Finegan, B. (1984). Forest succession. Nature, 313, 109–14CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Finkl, C. W. & Pilkey, O. H. (ed.) (1991). Impacts of Hurricane Hugo: September 10–22, 1989. Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 8

Fisher, S. G., Gray, L. J., Grimm, N. B. & Busch, D. E. (1982). Temporal succession in a desert stream ecosystem following flash flooding. Ecological Monographs, 52, 93–110CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Fitter, A. H. & Parsons, W. F. J. (1987). Changes in phosphorus and nitrogen availability on recessional moraines of the Athabasca Glacier, Alberta. Canadian Journal of Botany, 65, 210–13CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Fletcher, W. W. & Kirkwood, R. C. (1979). The bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum L. (Kuhn)); its biology and control. In The Experimental Biology of Ferns, ed. A. F. Dyer, pp. 591–635. New York: Academic Press

Fonteyn, P. J. & Mahall, B. E. (1978). Competition among desert perennials. Nature, 275, 544–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Fonda, R. W. (1974). Forest succession in relation to river terrace development in Olympic National Park, Washington. Ecology, 55, 927–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Foord, S. H., Vanaarde, R. J., & Ferreira, S. M. (1994). Seed dispersal by vervet monkeys in rehabilitating coastal dune forests at Richards Bay. South African Journal of Wildlife Research, 24, 56–9Google Scholar

Forbes, B. C. (1995). Tundra disturbance studies, III: Short-term effects of aeolian sand and dust, Yamal Region, Northwest Siberia. Environmental Conservation, 22, 335–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Forbes, B. C. & Jeffries, R. L. (1999). Revegetation of disturbed arctic sites: Constraints and applications. Biological Conservation, 88, 15–24CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Forbes, S. A. (1887). The lake as a microcosm. Bulletin Science Association of Peoria, Illinois, 1887, 77–87. (Not seen but cited in McIntosh (1985).)Google Scholar

Forster, S. M. & Nicolson, T. H. (1981). Microbial aggregation of sand in a maritime dune succession. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 13, 20–208Google Scholar

Fort, K. P. & Richards, J. H. (1998). Does seed dispersal limit initiation of primary succession in desert playas?American Journal of Botany, 85, 1722–31CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Foster, B. L. & Tilman, D. (2000). Dynamic and static views of succession: Testing the descriptive power of the chronosequence approach. Plant Ecology, 146, 1–10CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Fox, B. J. (1982). Fire and mammalian secondary succession in an Australian coastal heath. Ecology, 63, 1332–41CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Fox, B. J. (1990). Changes in the structure of mammal communities over successional time scales. Oikos, 59, 321–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Fox, R. L., Pena, R. S., Gavenda, R. T., Habte, M., Hue, N. V., Okawa, H., Jones, R. C., Plucknett, D. L., Silva, J. A. and Soltanpour, P. (1991). Amelioration, revegetation, and subsequent soil formation in denuded bauxite materials. Allertonia, 6, 128–84Google Scholar

Foy, C. D. (1984). Physiological effects of hydrogen, aluminium and manganese toxicities in acid soil. In Soil Acidity and Liming, 2nd edition, ed. F. Adams, pp. 57–97. Madison, Wisconsin: American Society of Agronomy. (Not seen but cited in Tyler (1996).)

Francis, P. (1993). Volcanoes: A Planetary Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Franco, A. C. & Nobel, P. S. (1988). Interactions between seedling of Agave deserti and nurse plant Hilaria rigida. Ecology, 69, 1731–40CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Franco, A. C. & Nobel, P. S. (1989). Effect of nurse plants on the microhabitat and growth of cacti. Journal of Ecology, 77, 870–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Frankl, R. & Schmeidl, H. (2000). Vegetation change in a South German raised bog: Ecosystem engineering by plant species, vegetation switch or ecosystem level feedback mechanisms. Flora, 195, 267–96CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Franklin, J. F., MacMahon, J. A.Swanson, F. J. & Sedell, J. R. (1985). Ecosystem responses to catastrophic disturbances: Lessons from Mount St. Helens. National Geographic Research, 1, 198–216Google Scholar

Franklin, J. F., Frenzen, P. M. & Swanson, F. J. (1998). Re-creation of ecosystems at Mount St. Helens: Contrasts in artificial and natural approaches. In Rehabilitating Damaged Ecosystems, 2nd edition, ed. J. Cairns, pp. 287–334. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press

Franklin, J. F. & MacMahon, J. A. (2000). Messages from a mountain. Science, 288, 1183–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Frelich, L. E. & Lorimer, C. G. (1991). Natural disturbance regimes in hemlock-hardwood forest of the Upper Great Lakes region. Ecological Monographs, 61, 145–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Frenot, Y., Gloaguen, J. C., Cannavacciuolo, M. & Bellido, A. (1998). Primary succession on glacier forelands in the subantarctic Kerguelen Islands. Journal of Vegetation Science, 9, 75–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Frenzen, P. M., Krasney, M. E. & Rigney, L. P. (1988). Thirty-three years of plant succession on the Kautz Creek mudflow, Mount Rainier National Park, Washington. Canadian Journal of Botany, 66, 130–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Fridriksson, S. (1987). Plant colonization of a volcanic island, Surtsey, Iceland. Arctic and Alpine Research, 19, 425–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Fridriksson, S. (1992). Vascular plants on Surtsey (1981–1990). Reykiavik, Surtsey Research Progress Report, 10, 17–30Google Scholar

Fridriksson, S. & Magnusson, B. (1992). Development of the ecosystem on Surtsey with reference to Anak Krakatau. GeoJournal, 28, 287–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Friedman, J. M., Osterkamp, W. R. & Lewis, W. M. Jr. (1996a). Channel narrowing and vegetation development following a Great Plains flood. Ecology, 77, 2167–81CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Friedman, J. M., Osterkamp, W. R. & Lewis, W. M. Jr. (1996b). The role of vegetation and bed-level fluctuations in the process of channel narrowing. Geomorphology, 14, 341–51CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Fröborg, H. & Eriksson, O. (1997). Local colonization and extinction of field layer plants in a deciduous forest and their dependence upon life history features. Journal of Vegetation Science, 8, 395–400CrossRef

Frostegård, A. & Bååth, E. (1996). The use of phospholipid fatty acid analysis to estimate bacterial and fungal biomass in soil. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 22, 59–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Fuller, R. N. (1999). The role of refugia in primary succession on Mount St. Helens, Washington. M.S. thesis, University of Washington, Seattle

Gadgil, R. L. (1971). The nutritional role of Lupinus arboreus in coastal sand dune forestry. I. The potential influence of undamaged lupin plants on nitrogen uptake by Pinus radiata. Plant and Soil, 34, 357–67CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gagné, J.-M. & Houle, G. (2001). Facilitation of Leymus mollis by Honckenya peploides on coastal dunes in subarctic Quebec, Canada. Canadian Journal of Botany, 79, 1327–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gallagher, E. D., Jumars, P. A. & Trueblood, D. D. (1983). Facilitation of soft-bottom benthic succession by tube builders. Ecology, 64, 1200–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gallagher, W. (1993). The Power of Place: How Our Surroundings Shape Our Thoughts, Emotions, and Actions. New York: Poseidon

Gallé, L. (1991). Structure and succession of ant assemblages in a north European sand dune area. Holarctic Ecology, 14, 31–7Google Scholar

Game, M., Carrel, J. E. & Hotrabhavandra, T. (1982). Patch dynamics of plant succession on abandoned surface coal mines: A case history approach. Journal of Ecology, 70, 707–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar

García-Fayos, P., García-Ventoso, B. & Cerdà, A. (2000). Limitations to plant establishment on eroded slopes in southeastern Spain. Journal of Vegetation Science, 11, 77–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar

García-Mora, M. R., Gallego-Fernández, J. B. & García-Novo, F. (1999). Plant functional types in coastal foredunes in relation to environmental stress and disturbance. Journal of Vegetation Science, 10, 27–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gardner, G. (1997). Preserving global cropland. In State of the World 1997, Worldwatch Institute, ed. L. R. Brown, C. Flavin, H. French et al., pp. 42–59. New York: Norton

Gardner, L. R., Michener, W. K., Blood, E. R., Williams, T. M., Lipscomb, D. J. & Jefferson, W. H. (1991). Ecological impact of Hurricane Hugo – salinization of a coastal forest. Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 8, 301–18Google Scholar

Garland, J. L. & Mills, A. L. (1991). Classification and characterization of heterotrophic microbial communities on the basis of patterns of community-level sole-carbon-source utilization. Applied Environmental Microbiology, 57, 2351–9Google ScholarPubMed

Garner, W. & Steinberger, Y. (1989). A proposed mechanism for the formation of ‘fertile islands’ in the desert ecosystem. Journal of Arid Environments, 16, 257–62Google Scholar

Garwood, N., Janos, P. & Brokaw, N. (1979). Earthquake-caused landslides: A major disturbance in tropical forests. Science, 205, 997–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gaynor, M. & Wallace, A. (1998). Population interactions in primary succession: An example of contramensalism involving rock-colonizing bryophytes. Lindbergia, 23, 81–5Google Scholar

Gemma, J. N. & Koske, R. E. (1990). Mycorrhizae in recent volcanic substrates in Hawaii. American Journal of Botany, 77, 1193–200CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gerlach, A. (1993). Biogeochemistry of nitrogen in a coastal dune succession on Spiekeroog (Germany) and the impact of climate. Phytocoenologia, 23, 115–27CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gerlach, A., Albers, E. A. & Broedlin, W. (1994). Development of the nitrogen cycle in the soils of a coastal dune succession. Acta Botanica Neerlandica, 43, 189–203CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gerrish, G., Mueller-Dombois, D. & Bridges, K. W. (1988). Nutrient limitation and Metrosideros forest dieback in Hawai'i. Ecology, 69, 723–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Giampietro, M. (1999). Economic growth, human disturbance to ecological systems, and sustainability. In Ecosystems of Disturbed Ground, ed. L. R. Walker, pp. 723–46. Amsterdam: Elsevier

Gibb, J. A. (1994). Plant succession on the braided bed of the Orongorongo River, Wellington, New Zealand, 1973–1990. New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 18, 29–40Google Scholar

Gibson, D. J., Ely, J. S. & Looney, P. B. (1997). A Markovian approach to modeling succession on a coastal barrier island following beach nourishment. Journal of Coastal Research, 13, 831–41Google Scholar

Gibson, D. J., Ely, J. S., Looney, P. B. & Gibson, P. T. (1995). Effects of inundation from the storm surge of Hurricane Andrew upon primary succession on dredge spoil. Journal of Coastal Research, 21, 208–16Google Scholar

Gilbert, O. L. (1989). The Ecology of Urban Habitats. London: Chapman & Hall

Gilbert, O. L. & Anderson, P. (1998). Habitat Creation and Repair. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Gill, D. (1972). The point bar environment in the Mackenzie River Delta. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 9, 1382–93CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gill, D. (1973). Floristics of a plant succession sequence in the Mackenzie Delta, Northwest Territories. Polarforschung, 43, 55–65Google Scholar

Gill, T. E. (1996). Eolian sediments generated by anthropogenic disturbance of playas: Human impacts on the geomorphic system and geomorphic impacts on the human system. Geomorphology, 17, 207–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gitay, H. & Noble, I. R. (1997). What are functional types and how should we seek them? In Plant Functional Types, ed. T. M. Smith, H. H. Shugart & F. I. Woodward, pp. 3–19. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Gitay, H. & Wilson, J. B. (1995). Post-fire changes in community structure of tall tussock grasslands: A test of alternative models of succession. Journal of Ecology, 83, 775–82CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gleason, H. A. (1917). The structure and development of the plant association. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 44, 463–81CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gleason, H. A. (1926). The individualistic concept of the plant association. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 53, 7–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gleason, H. A. (1939). The individualistic concept of the plant association. American Midland Naturalist, 21, 92–110CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gleason, H. A. (1953). Autobiogeographical letter. Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America, 34, 40–2Google Scholar

Gleeson, S. K. & Tilman, D. (1990). Allocation and the transient dynamics of succession on poor soils. Ecology, 71, 1144–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Glenn-Lewin, D. C. (1980). The individualistic nature of plant community development. Vegetatio, 43, 141–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Glenn-Lewin, D. C. & van der Maarel, E. (1992). Pattern and process of vegetation dynamics. In Plant Succession: Theory and Prediction, ed. D. C. Glenn-Lewin, R. K. Peet & T. T. Veblen, pp. 11–59. London: Chapman & Hall

Glenn-Lewin, D. C., Peet, R. K. & Veblen, T. T. (eds) (1992). Plant Succession: Theory and Prediction. London: Chapman & Hall

Gliessman, S. R. (1976). Allelopathy in a broad spectrum of environments as illustrated by bracken. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 73, 95–104CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Goddard, J. & Lago, P. K. (1985). Notes on blow fly (Diptera: Calliphoridae) succession on carrion in northern Mississippi. Journal of the Entomological Society, 20, 312–17CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gold, W. G. & Bliss, L. C. (1995). Water limitations and plant community development in a polar desert. Ecology, 76, 1558–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Goldberg, D. E., Rajaniemi, T., Gurevitch, J. & Stewart-Oaten, A. (1999). Empirical approaches to quantifying interaction intensity: Competition and facilitation along productivity gradients. Ecology, 80, 1118–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Goldthwait, R. P. (1966). Glacial history. In Soil Development and Ecological Succession in a Deglaciated Area of Muir Inlet, Southeast Alaska, ed. A. Mirsky, pp. 1–18. Institute of Polar Studies, Report Number 20. Ohio, U.S.A.: Ohio State University

Golley, F. B. (ed.) (1977). Ecological Succession. Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.: Dowden, Hutchison & Ross

Goralczyk, K. (1998). Nematodes in a coastal dune succession: indicators of soil properties?Applied Soil Ecology, 9, 465–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Grace, J. B. (1993). The effects of habitat productivity on competition intensity. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 8, 229–30CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Grandin, U. & Rydin, H. (1998). Attributes of the seed bank after a century of primary succession on islands in Lake Hjalmaren, Sweden. Journal of Ecology, 86, 293–303CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Grant, C. D. & Loneragan, W. A. (1999). The effects of burning on the understorey composition of 11–13 year-old rehabilitated bauxite mines in Western Australia. Plant Ecology, 145, 291–305CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Grassle, J. F. & Morse-Porteous, L. S. (1987). Macrofaunal colonization of disturbed deep-sea environments and the structure of deep-sea benthic communities. Deep-Sea Research, 34, 1911–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Greacen, E. L. & Sands, R. (1980). Compaction of forest soils. A review. Australian Journal of Soil Research, 18, 163–89CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Greenslade, P. (1999). Long distance migration of insects to a subantarctic island. Journal of Biogeography, 26, 1161–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Greipsson, S. & Davy, A. J. (1997). Responses of Leymus arenarius to nutrients: Improvement of seed production and seedling establishment for land reclamation. Journal of Applied Ecology, 34, 1165–76CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Greipsson, S. & El-Mayas, H. (1999). Large-scale reclamation of barren lands in Iceland by aerial seeding. Land Degradation and Development, 10, 185–933.0.CO;2-R>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Grice, A. C. & McIntyre, S. (1995). Speargrass (Heteropogon controtus) in Australia: dynamics of species and community. Rangeland Journal, 17, 3–25CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Griffin, G., Smith, D., Morton, S., Allan, G. & Masters, K. (1989). Status and implications of the invasion of tamarisk (Tamarix aphylla) on the Finke River, Northern Territory, Australia. Journal of Environmental Management, 29, 297–315Google Scholar

Griggs, R. F. (1933). The colonization of the Katmai ash, a new and inorganic “soil.”American Journal of Botany, 20, 92–113CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Griggs, R. F. (1956). Competition and succession on a rocky mountain fellfield. Ecology, 37, 8–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Grime, J. P. (1977). Evidence for the existence of three primary strategies in plants and its relevance to ecological and evolutionary theory. The American Naturalist, 111, 1169–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Grime, J. P. (1979). Plant Strategies and Vegetation Processes. New York: Wiley

Grime, J. P. (1998). Benefits of plant diversity to ecosystems: Immediate, filter and founder effects. Journal of Ecology, 86, 902–10CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Grimm, N. B. & Petrone, K. C. (1997). Nitrogen fixation in a desert stream ecosystem. Biogeochemistry, 37, 33–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar