‘Pessimism of the intellect, optimism of the will’ – this Gramscian dictum points a balanced approach to the African crisis. ‘Pessimism of the intellect’ is unavoidable in light of the grim situation facing many countries. Independence brought neither democracy nor prosperity to most Africans. Self-rule there was, but often with a pronounced economic and military dependence on external powers. The economic aspects of this crisis we have traced to a variety of factors, both endogenous and exogenous. Intractable realities of geography, demography and climate dictate a meagre economic potential for some. A harsh international economic environment assails all of Africa, and accelerates the down ward spiral. And socio-political conditions hamper a capitalist breakthrough. Africa's peasant societies, with their poorly adapted institutions, weakly integrated communities and minimal class formation, have not evolved into effective capitalist states. Their neopatrimonial regimes operate in ways discordant with the requirements for capital accumulation and capitalist growth.

What, then, are the grounds for ‘optimism of the will’? Given the constraints illustrated in this book, is it not merely foolish to hold out fond hopes for Africa's future? No – we must believe that people make history despite objective constraints. We can anticipate that Africans, refusing to be the helpless victims of overpowering forces, will find a creative response to their predicament.