Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2brh9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T10:25:39.780Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 18 - Hepatic Conditions

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 January 2024

By
Arash Motamed ,
Thang Tran  and
Mohamed H. Eloustaz
Edited by
David R. Gambling ,
M. Joanne Douglas  and
Grace Lim
David R. Gambling
Affiliation:
University of California, San Diego
M. Joanne Douglas
Affiliation:
University of British Columbia, Vancouver
Grace Lim
Affiliation:
University of Pittsburgh
Get access

Summary

The hormonal changes of pregnancy induce changes in the liver’s anatomy, physiology, and function. These can lead to diagnostic difficulties if liver disease is present during pregnancy. For example, spider nevi and palmar erythema are signs of liver disease but exist in some healthy pregnant women. However, liver size is unchanged in pregnancy, so the presence of hepatomegaly suggests liver disease. Even though the proportion of cardiac output flowing to the liver is reduced by 35%, hepatic blood flow remains unchanged from the nonpregnant state because of the overall increase in blood volume and cardiac output associated with pregnancy.

Type
Chapter
Information
Obstetric Anesthesia and Uncommon Disorders , pp. 290 - 304
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2024

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Sookoian, S. Liver disease during pregnancy: acute viral hepatitis: symposium on liver & pregnancy. Ann Hepatol 2006;5:231–236. https://doi.org.ukhttps://doi.org/10.1016/S1665-2681(19)32019-8Google Scholar
Chilaka, VN, Konje, JC. Viral Hepatitis in pregnancy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2021;256:287–296. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/J.EJOGRB.2020.11.052Google Scholar
Elinav, E, Ben-Dov, IZ, Shapira, Y, et al. Acute hepatitis A infection in pregnancy is associated with high rates of gestational complications and preterm labor. Gastroenterology 2006;130:1129–1134. https://doi.org/ 10.1053/j.gastro.2006.01.007Google Scholar
Chaudhry, SA, Hepatitis, Koren G. A infection during pregnancy. Can Fam Physician 2015;61:963–964.Google Scholar
Groom, HC, Smith, N, Irving, SA, et al. Uptake and safety of hepatitis A vaccination during pregnancy: a vaccine safety datalink study. Vaccine 2019;37:6648–6655.Google Scholar
Bartholomew, ML, Lee, M-J. Management of hepatitis B Infection in pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynecol 2018;61:137–145. https://doi.org/10.1097/GRF.0000000000000331Google Scholar
Whittaker, GW, Herrera, JL. Hepatitis B in pregnancy. South Med J 2014;107:195–200. https://doi.org/10.1097/SMJ.0000000000000077Google Scholar
Page, CM, Hughes, BL, Rhee, EHJ, et al. Hepatitis C in pregnancy: review of current knowledge and updated recommendations for management. Obstet Gynecol Surv 2017;72:347–355. https://doi.org/10.1097/OGX.0000000000000442Google Scholar
Hepatitis, Floreani A. C and pregnancy. World J Gastroenterol 2013;19:6714–6720. https://doi.org/10.3748/WJG.V19.I40.6714Google Scholar
Di Martino, V, Lebray, P, Myers, RP, et al. Progression of liver fibrosis in women infected with hepatitis C: long-term benefit of estrogen exposure. Hepatology 2004;40:1426–1433. https://doi.org/10.1002/HEP.20463Google Scholar
Seto, MT, Cheung, KW, Hung, IFN. Management of viral hepatitis A, C, D and E in pregnancy. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 2020;68:44–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2020.03.009Google Scholar
LiverTox: Clinical and Research Information on Drug-Induced Liver Injury [Internet]. Bethesda, MD: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases; 2012. Halogenated Anesthetics [Updated Jan 1, 2018].Google Scholar
Cheung, RC, McAuley, RJ, Pollard, JB. High mortality rate in patients with advanced liver disease independent of exposure to general anesthesia. J Clin Anesth 2005;17:172–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinane.2004.06.016Google Scholar
Boelig, RC, Barton, SJ, Saccone, G, et al. Interventions for treating hyperemesis gravidarum: a Cochrane systematic review and meta-analysis. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Medicine 2018;31:2492–2505. https://doi.org/10.1080/14767058.2017.1342805Google Scholar
Practice Bulletin Summary No. 153: Nausea and Vomiting of Pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 2015;126:687–688. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.aog.0000471177.80067.19Google Scholar
London, V, Grube, S, Sherer, DM, et al. Hyperemesis gravidarum: a review of recent literature. Pharmacology 2017;100:161–171. https://doi.org/10.1159/000477853Google Scholar
Abramowitz, A, Miller, ES, Wisner, KL. Treatment options for hyperemesis gravidarum. Arch Womens Ment Health 2017;20:363–372. https://doi.org/10.1007/S00737-016-0707-4Google Scholar
Outlaw, WM, Ibdah, JA. Impaired fatty acid oxidation as a cause of liver disease associated with hyperemesis gravidarum. Med Hypotheses 2005;65:1150–1153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2005.05.035Google Scholar
Jacobs, NF, Veronese, LR, Okano, S, et al. The incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting after caesarean section in patients with hyperemesis gravidarum: a retrospective cohort study. Int J Obstet Anesth 2020; 44:81–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijoa.2020.07.003Google Scholar
Hillman, SC, Stokes-Lampard, H, Kilby, MD. Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy. BMJ 2016;353:i1236. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.i1236Google Scholar
Lee, RH, Goodwin, TM, Greenspoon, J, et al. The prevalence of intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy in a primarily Latina Los Angeles population. J Perinatol 2006;26:527–532. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.jp.7211545Google Scholar
Pauli-Magnus, C, Meier, PJ. Hepatocellular transporters and cholestasis. J Clin Gastroenterol 2005;39:S103-10. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.mcg.0000155550.29643.7BGoogle Scholar
Dixon, PH, Williamson, C. The pathophysiology of intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy. Clin Res Hepatol Gastroenterol 2016;40:141–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinre.2015.12.008Google Scholar
Lee, RH, Greenberg, M, Metz, TD, et al. SMFM Consult Series #53: Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy. AJOG 2021;224:B2–B9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog2020.11.002.Google Scholar
Palmer, KR, Xiaohua, L, Mol, BW. Management of intrahepatic cholestasis in pregnancy. Lancet 2019;393(10174):853–854. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)32323-7Google Scholar
Smith, DD, Rood, KM. Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynecol 2020; 63:134–151. https://doi.org/10.1097/GRF.0000000000000495Google Scholar
DeLeon, A, De Oliveira, GS, Kalayil, M, et al. The incidence of coagulopathy in pregnant patients with intrahepatic cholestasis: should we delay or avoid neuraxial analgesia? J Clin Anesth 2014;26:623–627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinane.2014.04.013Google Scholar
Naoum, EE, Leffert, LR, Chitilian, HV, et al. Acute fatty liver of pregnancy pathophysiology, anesthetic implications, and obstetrical management. Anesthesiology 2019;130:446–461. https://doi.org/ 10.1097/ALN.0000000000002597Google Scholar
Liu, J, Ghaziani, TT, Wolf, JL. Acute fatty liver disease of pregnancy: updates in pathogenesis, diagnosis, and management. Am J Gastroenterol 2017;112:838–846. https://doi.org/10.1038/ajg.2017.54Google Scholar
Knight, M, Nelson-Piercy, C, Kurinczuk, JJ, et al. A prospective national study of acute fatty liver of pregnancy in the UK. Gut 2008;57:951–956. https://doi.org/10.1136/gut.2008.148676Google Scholar
Monga, M, Katz, AR. Acute fatty liver in the second trimester of pregnancy. Prim Care Update Ob Gyns 1998;5:191. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1068-607X(98)00116-4Google Scholar
Lindner, M, Hoffmann, GF, Matern, D. Newborn screening for disorders of fatty-acid oxidation: experience and recommendations from an expert meeting. J Inherit Metab Dis 2010;33:521–526. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10545-010-9076-8Google Scholar
Wei, Q, Zhang, L, Liu, X. Clinical diagnosis and treatment of acute fatty liver of pregnancy: a literature review and 11 new cases. J Obstet Gynaecol Res 2010; 36:751–756. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1447-0756.2010.01242.xGoogle Scholar
Ko, HH, Yoshida, EM. Acute fatty liver of pregnancy. Can J Gastroenterol 2006;20:25–30.Google Scholar
Davidson, KM, Simpson, LL, Knox, TA, et al. Acute fatty liver of pregnancy in triplet gestation. Obstet Gynecol 1998;91:806–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0029-7844(97)00477-8Google Scholar
Allen, AM, Kim, WR, Larson, JJ, et al. The epidemiology of liver diseases unique to pregnancy in a US community: a population-based study. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2016;14:287–294.e1-2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cgh.2015.08.022Google Scholar
Vigil-De Gracia, P. Acute fatty liver and HELLP syndrome: two distinct pregnancy disorders. Int J Gynecol Obstet 2001;73 :215–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0020-7292(01)00364-2Google Scholar
Vigil-De Gracia, P, Montufar-Rueda, C. Acute fatty liver of pregnancy: diagnosis, treatment, and outcome based on 35 consecutive cases. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2011;24:1143–1146. https://doi.org/10.3109/14767058.2010.531325Google Scholar
Minakami, H, Morikawa, M, Yamada, T, et al. Differentiation of acute fatty liver of pregnancy from syndrome of hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes and low platelet counts. J Obstet Gynaecol Res 2014; 40:641–649. https://doi.org/10.1111/jog.12282Google Scholar
Goel, A, Ramakrishna, B, Zachariah, U, et al. How accurate are the Swansea criteria to diagnose acute fatty liver of pregnancy in predicting hepatic microvesicular steatosis? Gut 2011;60:138–139. https://doi.org/10.1136/gut.2009.198465Google Scholar
Minakami, H, Takahashi, T, Tamada, T. Should routine liver biopsy be done for the definite diagnosis of acute fatty liver of pregnancy? Am J Obstet Gynecol 1991;164: 1690–1691. https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9378(91)91465-9Google Scholar
Nelson, DB, Byrne, JJ, Cunningham, FG. Acute fatty liver of pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynecol 2020;63:152–164. https://doi.org/ 10.1097/GRF.0000000000000494Google Scholar
Browning, MF, Levy, HL, Wilkins-Haug, LE, et al. Fetal fatty acid oxidation defects and maternal liver disease in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 2006; 107: 115–120.Google Scholar
Strauss, AW, Bennett, M, Rinaldo, P, et al. Inherited long-chain 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency and a fetal-maternal interaction cause maternal liver disease and other pregnancy complications. Semin Perinatol 1999;23:100–112.Google Scholar
Wajner, M, Amaral, AU. Mitochondrial dysfunction in fatty acid oxidation disorders: insights from human and animal studies. Biosci Rep 2016;36:e00281. https://doi.org/10.1042/BSR20150240Google Scholar
Ibdah, JA, Yang, Z, Bennett, MJ. Liver disease in pregnancy and fetal fatty acid oxidation defects. Mol Genet Metab 2000;71:182–189. https://doi.org/10.1006/mgme.2000.3065Google Scholar
Dwivedi, S, Runmei, M. Retrospective study of seven cases with acute fatty liver of pregnancy. ISRN Obstet Gynecol 2013;2013:730569. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/730569Google Scholar
Fesenmeier, MF, Coppage, KH, Lambers, DS, et al. Acute fatty liver of pregnancy in 3 tertiary care centers. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2005;192:1416–1419. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2004.12.035Google Scholar
Nelson, DB, Yost, NP, Cunningham, FG. Acute fatty liver of pregnancy: clinical outcomes and expected duration of recovery. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2013; 209:456.e1–456.e7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2013.07.006Google Scholar
Hay, JE. Liver disease in pregnancy. Hepatology 2008;47:1067–1076. https://doi.org/10.1002/hep.22130Google Scholar
Bacq, Y, Assor, P, Gendrot, C, et al. Stéatose hépatique aiguë gravidique récidivante. Gastroenterol Clin Biol 2007;31:1135–1138. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0399-8320(07)78351-3Google Scholar
Athanassiou, AM, Craigo, SD. Liver masses in pregnancy. Semin Perinatol 1998;22:166–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0146-0005(98)80049-9Google Scholar
Cobey, FC, Salem, RR. A review of liver masses in pregnancy and a proposed algorithm for their diagnosis and management. Am J Surg 2004;187:181–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjsurg.2003.11.016Google Scholar
Anderson, BB, Ukah, F, Tette, A, et al. Primary tumors of the liver. J Natl Med Assoc 1992;84:129–135.Google ScholarPubMed
Francis, AP, Chang, M, Dolin, CD, et al. Recurrent cholangiocarcinoma in pregnancy: a case report. AJP Rep 2018;8:E261–E263. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0038-1675376Google Scholar
Perarnau, JM, Bacq, Y. Hepatic vascular involvement related to pregnancy, oral contraceptives, and estrogen replacement therapy. Semin Liver Dis 2008;28:315–327. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0028-1085099Google Scholar
Jain, V, Ramachandran, V, Garg, R, et al. Spontaneous rupture of a giant hepatic hemangioma – sequential management with transcatheter arterial embolization and resection. Saudi J Gastroenterol 2010; 16:116–119. https://doi.org/10.4103/1319-3767.61240Google Scholar
Loevinger, EH, Vujic, I, Lee, WM, et al. Hepatic rupture associated with pregnancy: treatment with transcatheter embolotherapy. Obstet Gynecology 1985;65:281–284.Google Scholar
Kerlin, P, Davis, GL, McGill, DB, et al. Hepatic adenoma and focal nodular hyperplasia: clinical, pathologic, and radiologic features. Gastroenterology 1983;84:994–1002. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-5085(83)90202-0Google Scholar
Terkivatan, T, de Wilt, JHW, de Man, RA, et al. Management of hepatocellular adenoma during pregnancy. Liver 2000;20:186–187. https://doi.org/10.1034/J.1600-0676.2000.020002186.XGoogle Scholar
Christopherson, WM, Mays, ET, Barrows, G. A clinicopathologic study of steroid-related liver tumors. Am J Surg Pathol 1977;1 :31–41. https://doi.org/10.1097/00000478-197701010-00004Google Scholar
Valla, D-C. Primary Budd-Chiari syndrome. J Hepatol 2009;50:195–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhep.2008.10.007Google Scholar
Ren, W, Li, X, Jia, J, et al. Prevalence of Budd-Chiari syndrome during pregnancy or puerperium: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Gastroenterol Res Pract 2015;2015:839875. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/839875Google Scholar
Falter, HJ. Deep vein thrombosis in pregnancy and the puerperium: a comprehensive review. J Vasc Nurs 1997;15:58–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1062-0303(97)90002-9Google Scholar
Aggarwal, N, Suri, V, Chopra, S, et al. Pregnancy outcome in Budd Chiari Syndrome-a tertiary care centre experience. Arch Gynecol Obstet 2013;288:949–952. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00404-013-2834-8Google Scholar
Cimbanassi, S, Aseni, P, Mariani, A, et al. Spontaneous hepatic rupture during pregnancy in a patient with peliosis hepatis. Ann Hepatol 2015;14:553–558. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1665-2681(19)31179-2Google Scholar
Deleve, LD. Vascular liver diseases. Curr Gastroenterol Rep 2003;5:63–70.Google Scholar
Vignaux, O, Legmann, P, de Pinieux, G, et al. Hemorrhagic necrosis due to peliosis hepatis: imaging findings and pathological correlation. Eur Radiol 1999;9:454–456. https://doi.org/10.1007/S003300050691Google Scholar
Butt, MO, Luck, NH, Hassan, SM, et al. Peliosis hepatis complicating pregnancy: a rare entity. J Transl Int Med 2017;5:132–134. https://doi.org/10.1515/jtim-2017-0023Google Scholar
Zafrani, ES, Cazier, A, Baudelot A-M, , et al. Ultrastructural lesions of the liver in human peliosis a report of 12 cases. Am J Pathol 1984;114:349–359.Google Scholar
Omori, H, Asahi, H, Irinoda, T, et al. Peliosis hepatis during postpartum period: successful embolization of hepatic artery. J Gastroenterol 2004;39 :168–171. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00535-003-1268-7Google Scholar
Braga, A, Vasconcelos, C, Braga, J. Autoimmune hepatitis and pregnancy. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 2020;68:23–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2020.03.007Google Scholar
Czaja, AJ. Difficult treatment decisions in autoimmune hepatitis. World J Gastroenterol 2010;16:934–947. http://www.wjgnet.comhttps://doi.org/10.3748/WJG.V16.I8.934Google Scholar
Manns, MP, Czaja, AJ, Gorham, JD, et al. Diagnosis and management of autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology 2010;51:2193–2213. https://doi.org/10.1002/hep.23584Google Scholar
Czaja, AJ. Diagnosis and management of autoimmune hepatitis: current status and future directions. Gut Liver 2016;10:177–203. https://doi.org/10.5009/GNL15352Google Scholar
McFarlane, IG. Definition and classification of autoimmune hepatitis. Semin Liver Dis 2002;22:317–324. https://doi.org/10.1055/S-2002-35702Google Scholar
Bonney, EA. Immune regulation in pregnancy: a matter of perspective? Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am 2016;43:679–698. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ogc.2016.07.004Google Scholar
Buchel, E, Van Steenbergen, W, Nevens, F, et al. Improvement of autoimmune hepatitis during pregnancy followed by flare-up after delivery. Am J Gastroenterol 2002;97:3160–3165. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1572-0241.2002.07124.XGoogle Scholar
Gleeson, D, Heneghan, MA. British Society of Gastroenterology (BSG) guidelines for management of autoimmune hepatitis. Gut 2011;60:1611–1629. https://doi.org/10.1136/gut.2010.235259Google Scholar
Rosenkrantz, JG, Githens, JH, Cox, SM, et al. Azathioprine (Imuran) and pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1967;97:387–394. https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9378(67)90503-0Google Scholar
de Boer, NKH, Jarbandhan, SVA, de Graaf, P, et al. Azathioprine use during pregnancy: unexpected intrauterine exposure to metabolites. Am J Gastroenterol 2006;101:1390–1392. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1572-0241.2006.00538.xGoogle Scholar
Candia, L, Marquez, J, Espinoza, LR. Autoimmune hepatitis and pregnancy: a rheumatologist’s dilemma. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2005;35:49–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.semarthrit.2005.03.002Google Scholar
Braga, AC, Vasconcelos, C, Braga, J. Pregnancy with autoimmune hepatitis. Gastroenterol Hepatol Bed Bench 2016;9:220–224.Google Scholar
Terrabuio, DRB, Abrantes-Lemos, CP, Carrilho, FJ, et al. Follow-up of pregnant women with autoimmune hepatitis: the disease behavior along with maternal and fetal outcomes. J Clin Gastroenterol 2009;43:350–356. https://doi.org/10.1097/MCG.0B013E318176B8C5Google Scholar
Heneghan, MA, Norris, SM, O’Grady, JG, et al. Management and outcome of pregnancy in autoimmune hepatitis. Gut 2001;48:97–102. https://doi.org/10.1136/gut.48.1.97Google Scholar
Grønbaek, L, Vilstrup, H, Jepsen, P. Autoimmune hepatitis in Denmark: incidence, prevalence, prognosis, and causes of death. A nationwide registry-based cohort study. J Hepatol 2014;60:612–617. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhep.2013.11.025Google Scholar
Rodrigues, G, Seetharam, P. Management of hydatid disease (echinococcosis) in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol Surv 2008;63:116–123.Google Scholar
Fekih, MA, Abed, A, Chelli, H, et al. Kyste hydatique pelvien et grossesse. A propos de 4 cas. J Gynecol Obstet Biol Reprod 1992;21:803–805.Google Scholar
Rahman, MS, Rahman, AH, Lysikiewicz, A. Obstetric and gynaecological presentations of hydatid disease. BJOG 1982;89:665–670. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1471-0528.1982.TB04723.XGoogle Scholar
Montes, H, Soetkino, R, Carr-Locke, DL. Hydatid disease in pregnancy. Am J Gastroenterol 2002;97:1553–1555. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1572-0241.2002.05742.XGoogle Scholar
Khuroo, MS, Dar, MY, Yattoo, GN, et al. Percutaneous drainage versus albendazole therapy in hepatic hydatidosis: a prospective, randomized study. Gastroenterology 1993;104:1452–1459. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-5085(93)90355-GGoogle Scholar
Nahmias, J, Goldsmith, R, Soibelman, M, et al. Three- to 7-year follow-up after albendazole treatment of 68 patients with cystic echinococcosis (hydatid disease). Ann Trop Med Parasitol 1994;88:295–304. https://doi.org/10.1080/00034983.1994.11812870Google Scholar
Gil-Grande, LA, Rodriguez-Caabeiro, F, Prieto, JG, et al. Randomised controlled trial of efficacy of albendazole in intra-abdominal hydatid disease. Lancet 1993;342:1269–1272. https://doi.org/10.1016/0140-6736(93)92361-VGoogle Scholar
Theodorides, VJ, Carakostas, MC, Colaianne, JJ, et al. Safety of albendazole in developing bovine fetuses. Am J Vet Res 1993;54:2171–2174.Google Scholar
Pfeiffenberger, J, Beinhardt, S, Gotthardt, DN, et al. Pregnancy in Wilson disease – management and outcome. Hepatology 2018;67:1261–1269. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/hep.29490Google Scholar
Figueiredo, JC, Haiman, C, Porcel, J, et al. Sex and ethnic/racial-specific risk factors for gallbladder disease. BMC Gastroenterol 2017;17:153. https://doi.org/10.1186/S12876-017-0678-6Google Scholar
Lydon-Rochelle, M, Holt, VL, Martin, DP, et al. Association between method of delivery and maternal rehospitalization. JAMA 2000;283:2411–2416. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.283.18.2411Google Scholar
Mendez-Sanchez, N, Chavez-Tapia, NC, Uribe, M. Pregnancy and gallbladder disease. Ann Hepatol 2006;5:227–230. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17060890/Google Scholar
Ko, CW, Beresford, SAA, Schulte, SJ, et al. Incidence, natural history, and risk factors for biliary sludge and stones during pregnancy. Hepatology 2005;41:359–365. https://doi.org/10.1002/hep.20534Google Scholar
Cirillo, DJ, Wallace, RB, Rodabough, RJ, et al. Effect of estrogen therapy on gallbladder disease. JAMA 2005;293:330–339. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.293.3.330Google Scholar
Boston Collaborative Drug Surveillance Programme. Oral contraceptives and venous thromboembolic disease, surgically confirmed gallbladder disease, and breast tumours. Lancet 1973;1:1399–1404. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4126154/Google Scholar
Kline, LW, Karpinski, E. Progesterone inhibits gallbladder motility through multiple signaling pathways. Steroids 2005;70:673–679. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.steroids.2005.03.011Google Scholar
Gilo, NB, Amini, D, Landy, HJ. Appendicitis and cholecystitis in pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynecol 2009;52:586–596. https://doi.org/10.1097/GRF.0B013E3181C11D10Google Scholar
Lu, EJ, Curet, MJ, El-Sayed, YY, et al. Medical versus surgical management of biliary tract disease in pregnancy. Am J Surg 2004;188:755–759. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjsurg.2004.09.002Google Scholar
Kammerer, WS. Nonobstetric surgery during pregnancy. Med Clin North Am 1979; 63 :1157–1164. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0025-7125(16)31633-9Google Scholar
O’Heney, JL, Barnett, RE, MacSwan, RM, et al. Acute and chronic pancreatitis in pregnancy. TOG 2021 (online). https://doi.org/ 10.1111/tog.12725Google Scholar
Ibiebele, I, Schnitzler, M, Nippita, T, et al. Outcomes of gallstone disease during pregnancy: a population-based data linkage study. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 2017;31:522–530. https://doi.org/10.1111/ppe.12406Google Scholar
Kuy, S, Roman, SA, Desai, R, et al. Outcomes following cholecystectomy in pregnant and nonpregnant women. Surgery 2009;146:358–366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surg.2009.03.033Google Scholar
El-Messidi, A, Alsarraj, G, Czujoj -Shulman, N, et al. Evaluation of management and surgical outcomes in pregnancies complicated by acute cholecystitis. J Perinatal Med 2018;46:998–1003. https://doi.org/10.1515/jpm-2017-0085Google Scholar
Weiner, E, Mizrachi, Y, Keidar, R, et al. Laparoscopic surgery performed in advanced pregnancy compared to early pregnancy. Arch Gynecol Obstet 2015;292:1063–1068. https://doi.org/10.1007/S00404-015-3744-8Google Scholar
Strasberg, SM. Clinical practice. Acute calculous cholecystitis. N Engl J Med 2008; 358:2804–2811. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMCP0800929Google Scholar
Hill, LM, Johnson, CE, Lee, RA. Cholecystectomy in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1975; 46:291–293. Accessed October 2, 2021. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1161232/Google Scholar
McKellar, DP, Anderson, CT, Boynton, CJ, et al. Cholecystectomy during pregnancy without fetal loss. Surg, Gynecol Obstet 1992;174:465–468. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1595022/Google Scholar
Sedaghat, N, Cao, AM, Eslick, GD, et al. Laparoscopic versus open cholecystectomy in pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Surg Endosc 2017;31:673–679. https://doi.org/10.1007/S00464-016-5019-2Google Scholar
Kahaleh, M, Hartwell, GD, Arsenau, KO, et al. Safety and efficacy of ERCP in pregnancy. Gastrointest Endosc 2004;60 :287–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-5107(04)01679-7Google Scholar
Tham, TCK, Vandervoort, J, Wong, RCK, et al. Safety of ERCP during pregnancy. Am J Gastroenterol 2003;98:308–311. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1572-0241.2003.07261.XGoogle Scholar
Shelton, J, Linder, JD, Rivera-Alsina, ME, et al. Commitment, confirmation, and clearance: new techniques for nonradiation ERCP during pregnancy (with videos). Gastrointest Endosc 2008;67:364–368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gie.2007.09.036Google Scholar
de Vries, AB, Janse, M, Blokzijl, H, et al. Distinctive inflammatory bowel disease phenotype in primary sclerosing cholangitis. World J Gastroenterol 2015; 21:1956–1971. https://doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v21.I6.1956Google Scholar
Trivedi, PJ, Kumagi, T, Al-Harthy, N, et al. Good maternal and fetal outcomes for pregnant women with primary biliary cirrhosis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2014; 12:1179–1185.e1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cgh.2013.11.030Google Scholar
Cauldwell, M, Mackie, FL, Steer, PJ, et al. Pregnancy outcomes in women with primary biliary cholangitis and primary sclerosing cholangitis: a retrospective cohort study. BJOG 2020;127:876–884. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-0528.16119Google Scholar
Glasgow, RE, Visser, BC, Harris, HW, et al. Changing management of gallstone disease during pregnancy. Surg Endosc 1998;12:241–246. https://doi.org/10.1007/S004649900643Google Scholar
Date, RS, Kaushal, M, Ramesh, A. A review of the management of gallstone disease and its complications in pregnancy. Am J Surg 2008;196:599–608. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjsurg.2008.01.015Google Scholar
Barton, JR, Sibai, BM. Care of the pregnancy complicated by HELLP syndrome. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 1992;21:937–950.Google Scholar
Gonzalez-Martinez, G, Aguirre-Suarez, J, Alarcon-Sandoval, A, et al. [Hepatic and splenic rupture associated with severe preeclampsia: a case report]. Invest Clin 2004;45:63–68. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15058759/Google Scholar
Pilco, P, McCormack, L, Perez, D, et al. [Ruptured subcapsular hepatic hematoma associated with HELLP syndrome]. Rev Gastroenterol Peru 2006; 26:207–210. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16865169/Google Scholar
Araujo, ACPF, Leao, MD, Nobrega, MH, et al. Characteristics and treatment of hepatic rupture caused by HELLP syndrome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2006;195:129–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2006.01.016Google Scholar
Han, GH, Kim, M-A. Recurrent spontaneous hepatic rupture in pregnancy: a case report. Medicine (Baltimore) 2018;97:e11458. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000011458Google Scholar
Hakim-Elahi, E. Spontaneous rupture of the liver in pregnancy: report of a case and review of the literature. Obstet Gynecol 1965;26:435–440. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14341220/Google Scholar
Henny, CP, Lim, AE, Brummelkamp, WH, et al. A review of the importance of acute multidisciplinary treatment following spontaneous rupture of the liver capsule during pregnancy. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1983;156:593–598. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6845122/Google Scholar
Bis, KA, Waxman, B. Rupture of the liver associated with pregnancy: a review of the literature and report of 2 cases. Obstet Gynecol Surv 1976;31:763–773. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006254-197611000-00001Google Scholar
Smith, LG Jr, Moise, KJ Jr, Dildy, GA 3rd, et al. Spontaneous rupture of liver during pregnancy: current therapy. Obstet Gynecol 1991;77:171–175. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006250-199102000-00001Google Scholar
Poo, JL, Gongora, J. Hepatic hematoma and hepatic rupture in pregnancy. Ann Hepatol 2006;5:224–226. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17060889/Google Scholar
Gyang, AN, Srivastava, G, Asaad, K. Liver capsule rupture in eclampsia: treatment with hepatic artery embolisation. Arch Gynecol Obstet 2006;274:377–379. https://doi.org/10.1007/S00404-006-0179-2Google Scholar
Merchant, SH, Mathew, P, Vanderjagt, TJ, et al. Recombinant factor VIIa in management of spontaneous subcapsular liver hematoma associated with pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 2004;103:1055–1058. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.AOG.0000127943.68645.96Google Scholar
Shrivastava, VK, Imagawa, D, Wing, DA. Argon beam coagulator for treatment of hepatic rupture with hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, low platelets (HELLP) syndrome. Obstet Gynecol 2006;107:525–526. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.AOG.0000187954.45956.F1Google Scholar
Hunter, SK, Martin, M, Benda, JA, et al. Liver transplant after massive spontaneous hepatic rupture in pregnancy complicated by preeclampsia. Obstet Gynecol 1995;85:819–822. https://doi.org/10.1016/0029-7844(94)00348-HGoogle Scholar
Westbrook, RH, Yeoman, AD, Joshi, D, et al. Outcomes of severe pregnancy-related liver disease: refining the role of transplantation. Am J Transplant 2010;10:2520–2526. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1600-6143.2010.03301.XGoogle Scholar
Pandey, CK, Karna, ST, Pandey, VK, et al. Acute liver failure in pregnancy: challenges and management. Indian J Anaesth 2015;59:144–149. https://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5049.153035Google Scholar
Trey, C, Davidson, CS. The management of fulminant hepatic failure. Prog Liver Dis 1970;3:282–298. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4908702/Google Scholar
Polson, J, Lee, WM. American Association for the Study of Liver Disease. AASLD position paper: the management of acute liver failure. Hepatology 2005;41:1179–1197. https://doi.org/10.1002/hep.20703Google Scholar
Sato, H, Tomita, K, Yasue, C, et al. Pregnant woman with non-comatose autoimmune acute liver failure in the second trimester rescued using medical therapy: a case report. Hepatol Res 2015;45:349–355. https://doi.org/10.1111/hepr.12344Google Scholar
Flemming, JA, Mullin, M, Lu, J, et al. Outcomes of pregnant women with cirrhosis and their infants in a population-based study. Gastroenterology 2020;159:1752–1762.Google Scholar
Hansen, JD, Perri, RE, Riess, ML. Liver and biliary disease of pregnancy and anesthetic implications: a review. Anesth Analg 2021;133:80–92. https://doi.org/ 10.1213/ANE.0000000000005433Google Scholar
Griffiths, S, Nicholson, C. Anaesthetic implications for liver disease in pregnancy. BJA Education 2016;16:21–25. doi.org/10.1093/bjaceaccp/mkv008Google Scholar
Walcott, WO, Derick, DE, Jolley, JJ, et al. Successful pregnancy in a liver transplant patient. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1978;132:340–341. https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9378(78)90906-7Google Scholar
Cundy, TF, O’Grady, JG, Williams, R. Recovery of menstruation and pregnancy after liver transplantation. Gut 1990;31:337–338. https://doi.org/10.1136/gut.31.3.337Google Scholar
Mass, K, Quint, EH, Punch, MR, et al. Gynecological and reproductive function after liver transplantation. Transplantation 1996;62:476–479. https://doi.org/10.1097/00007890-199608270-00009Google Scholar
Jabiry-Zieniewicz, ZJ, Kaminski, P, Bobrowska, K, et al. Menstrual function in female liver transplant recipients of reproductive age. Transplant Proc 2009;41:1735–1739. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.transproceed.2009.03.073Google Scholar
de Koning, ND, Haagsma, EB. Normalization of menstrual pattern after liver transplantation: consequences for contraception. Digestion 1990;46:239–241. https://doi.org/10.1159/000200352Google Scholar
McKay, DB, Josephson, MA, Armenti, VT, et al. Reproduction and transplantation: report on the AST Consensus Conference on Reproductive Issues and Transplantation. Am J Transplant 2005;5:1592–1599. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1600-6143.2005.00969.XGoogle Scholar
Blume, C, Pischke, S, von Versen-Hoynck, F, et al. Pregnancies in liver and kidney transplant recipients: a review of the current literature and recommendation. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 2014;28:1123–1136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2014.07.021Google Scholar
Rahim, MN, Long, L, Penna, L, et al. Pregnancy in liver transplantation. Liver Transpl 2020;26:564–581. https://doi.org/10.1002/lt.25717Google Scholar
Nagy, S, Bush, MC, Berkowitz, R, et al. Pregnancy outcome in liver transplant recipients. Obstet Gynecol 2003;102:121–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0029-7844(03)00369-7Google Scholar
Marson, EJ, Kamarajah, SK, Dyson, JK, et al. Pregnancy outcomes in women with liver transplants: systematic review and meta-analysis. HPB (Oxford) 2020; 22 :1102–1111.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hpb.2020.05.001Google Scholar
Coffin, CS, Shaheen, AA, Burak, KW, et al. Pregnancy outcomes among liver transplant recipients in the United States: a nationwide case-control analysis. Liver Transpl 2010;16 :56–63. https://doi.org/10.1002/lt.21906Google Scholar
Deshpande, NA, James, NT, Kucirka, LM, et al. Pregnancy outcomes of liver transplant recipients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Liver Transpl 2012;18:621–629. https://doi.org/10.1002/lt.23416Google Scholar
Hviid, A, Molgaard-Nielsen, D. Corticosteroid use during pregnancy and risk of orofacial clefts. CMAJ 2011;183 :796–804. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.101063Google Scholar
Skuladottir, H, Wilcox, AJ, Ma, C, et al. Corticosteroid use and risk of orofacial clefts. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol 2014;100:499–506. https://doi.org/10.1002/bdra.23248Google Scholar
Casanova, MJ, Chaparro, M, Domenech, E, et al. Safety of thiopurines and anti-TNF-α drugs during pregnancy in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Am J Gastroenterol 2013;108 :433–440. https://doi.org/10.1038/ajg.2012.430Google Scholar
Jain, A, Venkataramanan, R, Fung, JJ, et al. Pregnancy after liver transplantation under tacrolimus. Transplantation 1997;64 :559–565. https://doi.org/10.1097/00007890-199708270-00002Google Scholar
Jain, AB, Reyes, J, Marcos, A, et al. Pregnancy after liver transplantation with tacrolimus immunosuppression: a single center’s experience update at 13 years. Transplantation 2003;76 :827–832. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.TP.0000084823.89528.89Google Scholar
Kainz, A, Harabacz, I, Cowlrick, IS, et al. Analysis of 100 pregnancy outcomes in women treated systemically with tacrolimus. Transpl Int 2000;13:S299–S300. https://doi.org/10.1007/S001470050347Google Scholar
Women in Hepatology Group; Italian Association for the Study of the Liver (AISF). AISF position paper on liver transplantation and pregnancy. Dig Liver Dis 2016; 48:860–868. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dld.2016.04.00Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×