Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2brh9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T14:29:48.476Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 14 - Prognostication in Delirium

from Part I - Disease-Specific Prognostication

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 November 2024

David M. Greer
Affiliation:
Boston University School of Medicine and Boston Medical Center
Neha S. Dangayach
Affiliation:
Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai and Mount Sinai Health System
Get access

Summary

Delirium is an acute disturbance of attention and awareness that can be associated with poor prognosis, including dependence and death.[1,2] Delirium is exceedingly common in critically ill patients across many different contexts, and can be considered a state of acute organ dysfunction or failure. Neuroprognostication in the setting of delirium is challenging due to the multifactorial nature of the syndrome and requires careful consideration of the various ways in which delirium manifests.

Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2024

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, DSM-5. 5th ed. Washington, DC: APA, 2013.Google Scholar
World Health Organization. The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders: Clinical Descriptions and Diagnostic Guidelines [online]. World Health Organization, 1992. Accessed at: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/37958.Google Scholar
Vasilevskis, EE, Han, JH, Hughes, CG, Ely, EW. Epidemiology and risk factors for delirium across hospital settings. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol. 2012;26:277–87.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boettger, S, Zipser, CM, Bode, L, et al. The prevalence rates and adversities of delirium: Too common and disadvantageous. Palliat Support Care. 2020 Aug 3:19.Google Scholar
Salluh, JI, Soares, M, Teles, JM, et al. Delirium epidemiology in critical care (DECCA): an international study. Crit Care Lond Engl. 2010;14:R210.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salluh, JIF, Wang, H, Schneider, EB, et al. Outcome of delirium in critically ill patients: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2015;350:h2538.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zipser, CM, Deuel, J, Ernst, J, et al. Predisposing and precipitating factors for delirium in neurology: a prospective cohort study of 1487 patients. J Neurol. 2019;266(12):3065–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shi, Q, Presutti, R, Selchen, D, Saposnik, G. Delirium in acute stroke: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Stroke. 2012;43:645–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Inouye, SK, Westendorp, RGJ, Saczynski, JS. Delirium in elderly people. Lancet Lond Engl. 2014;383:911–22.Google ScholarPubMed
Ely, EW, Margolin, R, Francis, J, et al. Evaluation of delirium in critically ill patients: validation of the Confusion Assessment Method for the Intensive Care Unit (CAM-ICU). Crit Care Med. 2001;29:1370–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ely, EW, Inouye, SK, Bernard, GR, et al. Delirium in mechanically ventilated patients: validity and reliability of the confusion assessment method for the intensive care unit (CAM-ICU). JAMA. 2001;286:2703–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bergeron, N, Dubois, MJ, Dumont, M, Dial, S, Skrobik, Y. Intensive Care Delirium Screening Checklist: evaluation of a new screening tool. Intensive Care Med. 2001;27:859–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rockwood, K, Cosway, S, Stolee, P, et al. Increasing the recognition of delirium in elderly patients. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1994;42:252–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kales, HC, Kamholz, BA, Visnic, SG, Blow, FC. Recorded delirium in a national sample of elderly inpatients: potential implications for recognition. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 2003;16:3238.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Devlin, JW, Skrobik, Y, Gélinas, C, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the prevention and management of pain, agitation/sedation, delirium, immobility, and sleep disruption in adult patients in the ICU. Crit Care Med. 2018;46:e825.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Inouye, SK, van Dyck CH, , Alessi, CA, et al. Clarifying confusion: the confusion assessment method. A new method for detection of delirium. Ann Intern Med. 1990;113:941–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shi, Q, Warren, L, Saposnik, G, Macdermid, JC. Confusion assessment method: a systematic review and meta-analysis of diagnostic accuracy. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2013;9:1359–70.Google Scholar
Patel, MB, Bednarik, J, Lee, P, et al. Delirium monitoring in neurocritically ill patients: a systematic review. Crit Care Med. 2018;46:1832–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mitasova, A, Kostalova, M, Bednarik, J, et al. Poststroke delirium incidence and outcomes: validation of the Confusion Assessment Method for the Intensive Care Unit (CAM-ICU). Crit Care Med. 2012;40:484–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krewulak, KD, Stelfox, HT, Leigh, JP, Ely, EW, Fiest, KM. Incidence and prevalence of delirium subtypes in an adult ICU: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Med. 2018;46:2029–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slooter, AJC, Otte, WM, Devlin, JW, et al. Updated nomenclature of delirium and acute encephalopathy: statement of ten Societies. Intensive Care Med. 2020;46:1020–2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Canet, E, Amjad, S, Robbins, R, et al. Differential clinical characteristics, management and outcome of delirium among ward compared with intensive care unit patients. Intern Med J. 2019;49:14961504.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leslie, DL, Marcantonio, ER, Zhang, Y, Leo-Summers, L, Inouye, SK. One-year health care costs associated with delirium in the elderly population. Arch Intern Med. 2008;168:2732.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milbrandt, EB, Deppen, S, Harrison, PL, et al. Costs associated with delirium in mechanically ventilated patients. Crit Care Med. 2004;32:955–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vasilevskis, EE, Chandrasekhar, R, Holtze, CH, et al. The cost of ICU delirium and coma in the intensive care unit patient. Med Care. 2018;56:890–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zaal, IJ, Devlin, JW, Peelen, LM, Slooter, AJC. A systematic review of risk factors for delirium in the ICU. Crit Care Med. 2015;43:40–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Price, CC, Garvan, C, Hizel, LP, Lopez, MG, Billings, FT. Delayed recall and working memory MMSE domains predict delirium following cardiac surgery. J Alzheimers Dis. 2017;59:1027–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mossello, E, Baroncini, C, Pecorella, L, et al. Predictors and prognosis of delirium among older subjects in cardiac intensive care unit: focus on potentially preventable forms. Eur Heart J Acute Cardiovasc Care. 2020;9(7):771–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van den Boogaard M, , Schoonhoven, L, Maseda, E, et al. Recalibration of the delirium prediction model for ICU patients (PRE-DELIRIC): a multinational observational study. Intensive Care Med. 2014;40:361–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cherak, SJ, Soo, A, Brown, KN, et al. Development and validation of delirium prediction model for critically ill adults parameterized to ICU admission acuity. PLoS One. 2020;15:e0237639.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wassenaar, A, Schoonhoven, L, Devlin, JW, et al. Delirium prediction in the intensive care unit: comparison of two delirium prediction models. Crit Care Lond Engl. 2018;22:114.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fan, H, Ji, M, Huang, J, et al. Development and validation of a dynamic delirium prediction rule in patients admitted to the Intensive Care Units (DYNAMIC-ICU): A prospective cohort study. Int J Nurs Stud. 2019;93:6473.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lucini, FR, Fiest, KM, Stelfox, HT, Lee, J. Delirium prediction in the intensive care unit: a temporal approach. Annu Int Conf IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc. 2020;2020:5527–30.Google ScholarPubMed
Marra, A, Pandharipande, PP, Shotwell, MS, et al. Acute brain dysfunction: development and validation of a daily prediction model. Chest. 2018;154:293301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lindroth, H, Bratzke, L, Purvis, S, et al. Systematic review of prediction models for delirium in the older adult inpatient. BMJ Open. 2018;8:e019223.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, RN, Cizginer, S, Pavlech, L, et al. Assessment of instruments for measurement of delirium severity: a systematic review. JAMA Intern Med. 2019;179:231–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lindroth, H, Khan, BA, Carpenter, JS, et al. Delirium severity trajectories and outcomes in ICU patients: defining a dynamic symptom phenotype. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2020;17(9):1094103.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hshieh, TT, Fong, TG, Schmitt, EM, et al. Does Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias modify delirium severity and hospital outcomes? J Am Geriatr Soc. 2020;68:1722–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pisani, MA, Murphy, TE, Araujo, KLB, Van Ness, PH. Factors associated with persistent delirium after intensive care unit admission in an older medical patient population. J Crit Care. 2010;25:540.e1–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hayhurst, CJ, Marra, A, Han, JH, et al. Association of hypoactive and hyperactive delirium with cognitive function after critical illness. Crit Care Med. 2020;48:e480e488.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nedergaard, HK, Jensen, HI, Stylsvig, M, et al. Effect of nonsedation on cognitive function in survivors of critical illness. Crit Care Med. 2020;48(12):1790–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rudberg, MA, Pompei, P, Foreman, MD, Ross, RE, Cassel, CK. The natural history of delirium in older hospitalized patients: a syndrome of heterogeneity. Age Ageing. 1997;26:169–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heesakkers, H, Devlin, JW, Slooter, AJC, van den Boogaard, M. Association between delirium prediction scores and days spent with delirium. J Crit Care. 2020;58:69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nitchingham, A, Kumar, V, Shenkin, S, Ferguson, KJ, Caplan, GA. A systematic review of neuroimaging in delirium: predictors, correlates and consequences. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2018;33:1458–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Soiza, RL, Sharma, V, Ferguson, K, et al. Neuroimaging studies of delirium: a systematic review. J Psychosom Res. 2008;65:239–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hijazi, Z, Lange, P, Watson, R, Maier, AB. The use of cerebral imaging for investigating delirium aetiology. Eur J Intern Med. 2018;52:35–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bendahan, N, Neal, O, Ross-White, A, Muscedere, J, Boyd, JG. relationship between near-infrared spectroscopy-derived cerebral oxygenation and delirium in critically ill patients: a systematic review. J Intensive Care Med. 2019;34:514–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bernardi, MH, Wahrmann, M, Dworschak, M, et al. Carotid artery blood flow velocities during open-heart surgery and its association with delirium: A prospective, observational pilot study. Medicine (Baltimore). 2019;98:e18234.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunther, ML, Morandi, A, Krauskopf, E, et al. The association between brain volumes, delirium duration, and cognitive outcomes in intensive care unit survivors: the VISIONS cohort magnetic resonance imaging study. Crit Care Med. 2012;40:2022–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Choi, S-H, Lee, H, Chung, T-S, et al. Neural network functional connectivity during and after an episode of delirium. Am J Psychiatry. 2012;169:498507.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Souza-Dantas, VC, Dal-Pizzol, F, Tomasi, CD, et al. Identification of distinct clinical phenotypes in mechanically ventilated patients with acute brain dysfunction using cluster analysis. Medicine (Baltimore). 2020;99:e20041.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Khan, BA, Perkins, AJ, Prasad, NK, et al. Biomarkers of delirium duration and delirium severity in the ICU. Crit Care Med. 2020;48:353–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gailiušas, M, Andrejaitienė, J, Širvinskas, E, et al. Association between serum biomarkers and postoperative delirium after cardiac surgery. Acta Medica Litu. 2019;26:810.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cooper, J, Stukas, S, Hoiland, RL, et al. Quantification of neurological blood-based biomarkers in critically ill patients with coronavirus disease 2019. Crit Care Explor. 2020;2:e0238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ehler, J, Petzold, A, Wittstock, M, et al. The prognostic value of neurofilament levels in patients with sepsis-associated encephalopathy – a prospective, pilot observational study. PLoS One. 2019;14:e0211184.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hayhurst, CJ, Patel, MB, McNeil, JB, et al. Association of neuronal repair biomarkers with delirium among survivors of critical illness. J Crit Care. 2020;56:94–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jorge-Ripper, C, Alemán, M-R, Ros, R, et al. Prognostic value of acute delirium recovery in older adults. Geriatr Gerontol Int. 2017;17:1161–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ayob, F, Lam, E, Ho, G, Chung, F, El-Beheiry, H, Wong, J. Pre-operative biomarkers and imaging tests as predictors of post-operative delirium in non-cardiac surgical patients: a systematic review. BMC Anesthesiol. 2019;19:25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramírez-Bermúdez, J, Perez-Neri, I, Montes, S, et al. Dopaminergic Hyperactivity in Neurological Patients with Delirium. Arch Med Res. 2019;50:477–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van der Kooi, AW, Leijten, FSS, van der Wekken, RJ, Slooter, AJC. What are the opportunities for eeg-based monitoring of delirium in the ICU? J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2012;24:472–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Romano, J, Engel, GL. Delirium, I. Electroencephalographic data. Arch Neurol Psychiatry. 1944;51:356–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Numan, T, van den Boogaard, M, Kamper, AM, et al. Recognition of delirium in postoperative elderly patients: a multicenter study. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2017;65(9):1932–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kimchi, EY, Neelagiri, A, Whitt, W, et al. Clinical EEG slowing correlates with delirium severity and predicts poor clinical outcomes. Neurology. 2019;93:e1260e1271.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shinozaki, G, Bormann, NL, Chan, AC, et al. Identification of patients with high mortality risk and prediction of outcomes in delirium by bispectral EEG. J Clin Psychiatry. 2019;80(5):19m12749.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Azabou, E, Magalhaes, E, Braconnier, A, et al. Early standard electroencephalogram abnormalities predict mortality in septic intensive care unit patients. PLoS One. 2015;10(10):e1039969.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boord, MS, Moezzi, B, Davis, D, et al. Investigating how electroencephalogram measures associate with delirium: a systematic review. Clin Neurophysiol. 2020;132(1):246–57.Google ScholarPubMed
Fritz, BA, Maybrier, HR, Avidan, MS. Intraoperative electroencephalogram suppression at lower volatile anaesthetic concentrations predicts postoperative delirium occurring in the intensive care unit. Br J Anaesth. 2018;121:241–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wildes, TS, Mickle, AM, Ben Abdallah, A, et al. effect of electroencephalography-guided anesthetic administration on postoperative delirium among older adults undergoing major surgery: the ENGAGES randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2019;321:473–83.Google ScholarPubMed
Oh, J, Cho, D, Kim, J, et al. Changes in heart rate variability of patients with delirium in intensive care unit. Annu Int Conf IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc. 2017;2017:3118–21.Google Scholar
Matsushima, E, Nakajima, K, Moriya, H, et al. A psychophysiological study of the development of delirium in coronary care units. Biol Psychiatry. 1997;41:1211–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van der Kooi AW, , Rots, ML, Huiskamp, G, et al. Delirium detection based on monitoring of blinks and eye movements. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2014;22:1575–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Favre, E, Bernini, A, Morelli, P, et al. Neuromonitoring of delirium with quantitative pupillometry in sedated mechanically ventilated critically ill patients. Crit Care Lond Engl. 2020;24:66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cole, MG, Ciampi, A, Belzile, E, Zhong, L. Persistent delirium in older hospital patients: a systematic review of frequency and prognosis. Age Ageing. 2008;38:1926.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aung Thein, MZ, Pereira, JV, Nitchingham, A, Caplan, GA. A call to action for delirium research: meta-analysis and regression of delirium associated mortality. BMC Geriatr. 2020;20:325.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krewulak, KD, Stelfox, HT, Ely, EW, Fiest, KM. Risk factors and outcomes among delirium subtypes in adult ICUs: a systematic review. J Crit Care. 2020;56:257–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shehabi, Y, Riker, RR, Bokesch, PM, et al. Delirium duration and mortality in lightly sedated, mechanically ventilated intensive care patients. Crit Care Med. 2010;38:2311–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klein Klouwenberg, PMC, Zaal, IJ, Spitoni, C, et al. The attributable mortality of delirium in critically ill patients: prospective cohort study. BMJ. 2014;349:g6652.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dubois, MJ, Bergeron, N, Dumont, M, Dial, S, Skrobik, Y. Delirium in an intensive care unit: a study of risk factors. Intensive Care Med. 2001;27:12971304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pandharipande, PP, Girard, TD, Jackson, JC, et al. Long-term cognitive impairment after critical illness. N Engl J Med. 2013;369:1306–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van den Boogaard, M, Schoonhoven, L, Evers, AWM, et al. Delirium in critically ill patients: impact on long-term health-related quality of life and cognitive functioning. Crit Care Med. 2012;40:112–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, DHJ, Muniz-Terrera, G, Keage, HAD, et al. Association of delirium with cognitive decline in late life: a neuropathologic study of 3 population-based cohort studies. JAMA Psychiatry. 2017;74:244–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brummel, NE, Jackson, JC, Pandharipande, PP, et al. Delirium in the ICU and subsequent long-term disability among survivors of mechanical ventilation. Crit Care Med. 2014;42:369–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Inoue, S, Hatakeyama, J, Kondo, Y, et al. Post‐intensive care syndrome: its pathophysiology, prevention, and future directions. Acute Med Surg. 2019;6:233–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schweickert, WD, Pohlman, MC, Pohlman, AS, et al. Early physical and occupational therapy in mechanically ventilated, critically ill patients: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet Lond Engl. 2009;373:1874–82.Google ScholarPubMed
Partridge, JSL, Martin, FC, Harari, D, Dhesi, JK. The delirium experience: what is the effect on patients, relatives and staff and what can be done to modify this? Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2013;28:804–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Svenningsen, H, Tønnesen, EK, Videbech, P, et al. Intensive care delirium – effect on memories and health-related quality of life – a follow-up study. J Clin Nurs. 2014;23:634–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Righy, C, Rosa, RG, da Silva, RTA, et al. Prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in adult critical care survivors: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care. 2019;23(1):213.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bulic, D, Bennett, M, Georgousopoulou, EN, et al. Cognitive and psychosocial outcomes of mechanically ventilated intensive care patients with and without delirium. Ann Intensive Care. 2020;10:104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, KN, Soo, A, Faris, P, Patten, SB, Fiest, KM, Stelfox, HT. Association between delirium in the intensive care unit and subsequent neuropsychiatric disorders. Crit Care Lond Engl. 2020;24:476.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eshmawey, M, Arlt, S, Ledschbor-Frahnert, C, Guenther, U, Popp, J. Preoperative depression and plasma cortisol levels as predictors of delirium after cardiac surgery. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2019;48:207–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
The Joint Commission. Sentinel Event Alert 59: Physical and verbal violence against health care workers. 2018; revised June 2021.Google Scholar
Steis, MR, Evans, L, Hirschman, KB, et al. Screening for delirium via family caregivers: convergent validity of the Family Confusion Assessment Method (FAM-CAM) and Interviewer-Rated CAM. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2012;60:2121–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Inouye, SK, Puelle, M, Saczynski, J, Steis, M. The Family Confusion Assessment Method (FAM-CAM): Instrument and Training Manual. Boston: Hospital Elder Life Program, 2012. Available at:www.hospitalelderlifeprogram.org.Google Scholar
European Delirium Association, American Delirium Society. The DSM-5 criteria, level of arousal and delirium diagnosis: inclusiveness is safer. BMC Med. 2014;12:141.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sherer, M, Katz, DI, Bodien, YG, et al. Post-traumatic confusional state: a case definition and diagnostic criteria. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2020;101(11):2041–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boettger, S, Meyer, R, Richter, A, et al. Screening for delirium with the Intensive Care Delirium Screening Checklist (ICDSC): Symptom profile and utility of individual items in the identification of delirium dependent on the level of sedation. Palliat Support Care. 2019;17:7481.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van den Boogaard, M, Wassenaar, A, van Haren, FMP, et al. Influence of sedation on delirium recognition in critically ill patients: a multinational cohort study. Aust Crit Care. 2020;33(5):420–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patel, SB, Poston, JT, Pohlman, A, Hall, JB, Kress, JP. Rapidly reversible, sedation-related delirium versus persistent delirium in the intensive care unit. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2014;189:658–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nassar, AP, Zampieri, FG, Salluh, JI, et al. Organizational factors associated with target sedation on the first 48 h of mechanical ventilation: an analysis of checklist-ICU database. Crit Care Lond Engl. 2019;23:34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boßelmann, C, Zurloh, J, Stefanou, M-I, et al. delirium screening in aphasic patients with the Intensive Care Delirium Screening Checklist (ICDSC): a prospective cohort study. Front Neurol. 2019;10:1198.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
von Hofen-Hohloch, J, Awissus, C, Fischer, MM, et al. Delirium Screening in neurocritical care and stroke unit patients: a pilot study on the influence of neurological deficits on CAM-ICU and ICDSC outcome. Neurocrit Care. 2020;33(3):708–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reznik, ME, Drake, J, Margolis, SA, et al. Deconstructing poststroke delirium in a prospective cohort of patients with intracerebral hemorrhage. Crit Care Med. 2020;48:111–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Janssen, NJJF, Tan, EYL, Staal, M, et al. On the utility of diagnostic instruments for pediatric delirium in critical illness: an evaluation of the Pediatric Anesthesia Emergence Delirium Scale, the Delirium Rating Scale 88, and the Delirium Rating Scale-Revised R-98. Intensive Care Med. 2011;37:1331–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alvarez, RV, Palmer, C, Czaja, AS, et al. Delirium is a common and early finding in patients in the pediatric cardiac intensive care unit. J Pediatr. 2018;195:206–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bastos, AS, Beccaria, LM, da Silva, DC, Barbosa, TP. Identification of delirium and subsyndromal delirium in intensive care patients. Rev Bras Enferm. 2019;72:463–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yamada, C, Iwawaki, Y, Harada, K, et al. Frequency and risk factors for subsyndromal delirium in an intensive care unit. Intensive Crit Care Nurs. 2018;47:1522.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Serafim, RB, Soares, M, Bozza, FA, et al. Outcomes of subsyndromal delirium in ICU: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Lond Engl. 2017;21:179.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cole, MG, Bailey, R, Bonnycastle, M, et al. Frequency of full, partial and no recovery from subsyndromal deliriumin older hospital inpatients. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2016;31:544–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leslie, DL, Zhang, Y, Holford, TR, et al. Premature death associated with delirium at 1-year follow-up. Arch Intern Med. 2005;165:1657–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kiely, DK, Marcantonio, ER, Inouye, SK, et al. Persistent delirium predicts increased mortality. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2009;57:5561.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCusker, J, Cole, M, Abrahamowicz, M, Primeau, F, Belzile, E. Delirium predicts 12-month mortality. Arch Intern Med. 2002;162:457–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dharmarajan, K, Swami, S, Gou, RY, Jones, RN, Inouye, SK. Pathway from delirium to death: potential in-hospital mediators of excess mortality. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2017;65:1026–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Inouye, SK, Marcantonio, ER, Metzger, ED. Doing Damage in Delirium: The Hazards of Antipsychotic Treatment in Elderly Persons. Lancet Psychiatry. 2014;1:312315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herzig, SJ, Rothberg, MB, Guess, JR, et al. Antipsychotic Use in Hospitalized Patients: Rates, Indications, and Predictors. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2016;64:299305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pendlebury, ST, Lovett, NG, Smith, SC, et al. Observational, longitudinal study of delirium in consecutive unselected acute medical admissions: age-specific rates and associated factors, mortality and re-admission. BMJ Open. 2015;5:e007808.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nikooie, R, Neufeld, KJ, Oh, ES, et al. Antipsychotics for treating delirium in hospitalized adults: a systematic review. Ann Intern Med. 2019;171:485.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oh, ES, Needham, DM, Nikooie, R, et al. Antipsychotics for preventing delirium in hospitalized adults: a systematic review. Ann Intern Med. 2019;171:474.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuehn, BM. FDA warns antipsychotic drugs may be risky for elderly. JAMA. 2005;293:2462.Google ScholarPubMed
Herzig, SJ, LaSalvia, MT, Naidus, E, et al. Antipsychotics and the risk of aspiration pneumonia in individuals hospitalized for nonpsychiatric conditions: a cohort study. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2017;65:2580–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oh, ES, Akeju, O, Avidan, MS, et al. A roadmap to advance delirium research: recommendations from the NIDUS Scientific Think Tank. Alzheimers Dement J. 2020;16:726–33.Google ScholarPubMed
Girard, TD, Thompson, JL, Pandharipande, PP, et al. Clinical phenotypes of delirium during critical illness and severity of subsequent long-term cognitive impairment: a prospective cohort study. Lancet Respir Med. 2018;6:213–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Inouye, SK, Bogardus, ST, Baker, DI, Leo-Summers, L, Cooney, LM. The Hospital Elder Life Program: a model of care to prevent cognitive and functional decline in older hospitalized patients. Hospital Elder Life Program. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2000;48:16971706.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×