Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-f554764f5-nqxm9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-04-09T02:40:21.007Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 5 - Movement disorders of autoimmune origin

from Section II - Movement disorders in systemic disease

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 April 2014

By
José Fidel Baizabal-Carvallo  and
Joseph Jankovic
Edited by
Werner Poewe  and
Joseph Jankovic
José Fidel Baizabal-Carvallo
Affiliation:
Parkinson’s Disease Center and Movement Disorders Clinic, Baylor College of Medicine, Department of Neurology, Houston, TX, USA
Joseph Jankovic
Affiliation:
Baylor College of Medicine, Texas
Werner Poewe
Affiliation:
Medical University Innsbruck
Joseph Jankovic
Affiliation:
Baylor College of Medicine, Texas
Get access

Summary

Introduction

Movement disorders (MDs) may present in a wide variety of autoimmune diseases affecting the nervous system. Some of these autoimmune disorders may be triggered by an infectious agent, such as Streptococcus in Sydenham’s disease, may occur in the setting of cancer, or with other autoimmune disorders associated with specific central nervous system (CNS) autoantibodies (Baizabal-Carvallo and Jankovic 2012). As infectious and paraneoplastic MDs will be reviewed elsewhere in this volume, they will not be included in this chapter.

In this chapter, we will review the MDs manifested as stiff person syndrome, encephalopathy associated with anti-thyroid antibodies, celiac disease, cerebral folate deficiency syndrome, systemic autoimmune and rheumatic diseases, and autoimmune vasculitis. The frequency of MDs varies according to the underlying disorder, and the phenomenology may be helpful to guide diagnostic tests of specific antibodies and treatment decisions. Table 5.1 provides a rapid overview of the most common autoimmune-related movement disorders.

Type
Chapter
Information
Movement Disorders in Neurologic and Systemic Disease , pp. 52 - 72
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2014

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Abele, M., Bürk, K., Schöls, L., Schwartz, S., Besenthal, I., Dichgans, J., et al. (2002). “The aetiology of sporadic adult-onset ataxia,” Brain 125: 961–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abou-Zeid, E., Boursoulian, L. J., Metzer, W. S., and Gundogdu, B. (2012). “Morvan syndrome: a case report and review of the literature,” J. Clin. Neuromuscul. Dis. 13: 214–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Akman-Demir, G., Serdaroglu, P., and Tasci, B. (1999). “Clinical patterns of neurological involvement in Behçet’s disease: evaluation of 200 patients. The Neuro-Behçet Study Group,” Brain 122: 2171–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alberca, R. A., Romero, M., and Chaparro, J. (1982). “Jerking stiff-man syndrome,” J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 45: 1159–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Al Jishi, F., Al Kawi, M. Z., El Ramahi, K., and Omer, S. (1995). “Hemichorea in systemic lupus erythematosus: significance of MRI findings,” Lupus 4: 321–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ali, F., Rowley, M., Jayakrishnan, B., Teuber, S., Gershwin, M. E., and Mackay, I. R. (2011). “Stiff-person syndrome (SPS) and anti-GAD-related CNS degenerations: protean additions to the autoimmune central neuropathies,” J. Autoimmun. 37: 79–87.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alonso-Navarro, H., Arroyo, M., Parra, A., and Jiménez-Jiménez, F. J. (2009). “Paroxysmal dystonia associated to primary Sjögren’s syndrome,” Mov. Disord. 24: 788–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Appenzeller, S., Cendes, F., and Costallat, L. T. (2008). “Cerebellar ataxia in systemic lupus erythematosus,” Lupus 17: 1122–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Asherson, R. A., Derksen, R. H., Harris, E. N., Bouma, B. N., Gharavi, A. E., Kater, L., and Hughes, G. R. (1987). “Chorea in systemic lupus erythematosus and ‘lupus-like’ disease: association with antiphospholipid antibodies,” Semin. Arthritis Rheum. 16: 253–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baizabal-Carvallo, J. F., Alonso-Juarez, M., and Koslowski, M. (2011). “Chorea in systemic lupus erythematosus,” J. Clin. Rheumatol. 17: 69–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baizabal-Carvallo, J. F. and Jankovic, J. (2012). “Movement disorders in autoimmune diseases,” Mov. Disord. 27: 935–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benamour, S., Naji, T., Alaoui, F. Z., El-Kabli, H., and El-Aidouni, S. (2006). “Neurological involvement in Behçet’s disease 154 cases from a cohort of 925 patients and review of the literature,” Rev. Neurol. (Paris) 162: 1084–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bertsias, G. K., Ioannidis, J. P., Aringer, M., Bollen, E., Bombardieri, S., Bruce, I. N., et al. (2010). “EULAR recommendations for the management of systemic lupus erythematosus with neuropsychiatric manifestations: report of a task force of the EULAR standing committee for clinical affairs,” Ann. Rheum. Dis. 69: 2074–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bhatia, K. P., Brown, P., Gregory, R., Lennox, G. G., Manji, H., Thompson, P. D., et al. (1995). “Progressive myoclonic ataxia associated with coeliac disease. The myoclonus is of cortical origin, but the pathology is in the cerebellum,” Brain 118: 1087–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blank, M., Krause, I., Magrini, L., Spina, G., Kalil, J., Jacobsen, S., et al. (2006). “Overlapping humoral autoimmunity links rheumatic fever and the antiphospholipid syndrome,” Rheumatology (Oxford) 45: 833–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blum, P. and Jankovic, J. (1991). “Stiff-person syndrome: An autoimmune disease,” Mov. Disord. 6: 12–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bogdanova, D., Milanov, I., and Georgiev, D. (1998). “Parkinsonian syndrome as a neurological manifestation of Behçet’s disease,” Can. J. Neurol. Sci. 25: 82–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boscolo, S., Sarich, A., Lorenzon, A., Passoni, M., Rui, V., Stebel, M., et al. (2007). “Gluten ataxia: passive transfer in a mouse model,” Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1107: 319–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brain, L., Jellinek, E. H., and Ball, K. (1966). “Hashimoto’s disease and encephalopathy,” Lancet Neurol. 2: 512–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bürk, K., Bösch, S., Müller, C. A., Melms, A., Zühlke, C., Stern, M., et al. (2001a). “Sporadic cerebellar ataxia associated with gluten sensitivity,” Brain 124: 1013–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bürk, K., Melms, A., Schulz, J. B., and Dichgans, J. (2001b). “Effectiveness of intravenous immunoglobulin therapy in cerebellar ataxia associated with gluten sensitivity,” Ann. Neurol. 50: 827–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cairo, H., Bode, H., Debatin, K. M., Opladen, T., and Schwarz, K. (2009). “Congenital null mutations of the FOLR1 gene: a progressive neurologic disease and its treatment,” Neurology 73: 2127–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, A. M. and Garland, H. (1956). “Subacute myoclonic spinal neuronitis,” J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 19: 268–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Castillo, P., Woodruff, B., Caselli, R., Vernino, S., Lucchinetti, C., Swanson, J., et al. (2006). “Steroid-responsive encephalopathy associated with autoimmune thyroiditis,” Arch. Neurol. 63: 197–202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cervera, R., Asherson, R. A., Font, J., Tikly, M., Pallares, L., Chamorro, A., et al. (1997). “Chorea in the antiphospholipid syndrome: clinical, radiologic, and immunologic characteristics of 50 patients from our clinics and the recent literature,” Medicine (Baltimore) 76: 203–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dalakas, M. C. (2011). “Stiff person syndrome: advances in pathogenesis and therapeutic interventions,” Curr. Treat. Options Neurol. 11: 102–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dalakas, M. C., Fujii, M., Li, M., Lutfi, B., Kyhos, J., and McElroy, B. (2001). “High-dose intravenous immune globulin for stiff-person syndrome,” N. Engl. J. Med. 345: 1870–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dale, R. C., Yin, K., Ding, A., Merheb, V., Varadkhar, S., McKay, D., et al. (2011). “Antibody binding to neuronal surface in movement disorders associated with lupus and antiphospholipid antibodies,” Dev. Med. Child Neurol. 53: 522–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Delalande, S., de Seze, J., Fauchais, A. L. (2004). “Neurologic manifestations in primary Sjögren’s syndrome: a study of 82 patients,” Medicine (Baltimore) 83: 280–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dinkel, K., Meinck, H. M., Jury, K. M., Karges, W., and Richter, W. (1998). “Inhibition of gamma-aminobutyric acid synthesis by glutamic acid decarboxylase autoantibodies in stiff-man syndrome,” Ann. Neurol. 44: 194–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duddy, M. E. and Baker, M. R. (2009). “Stiff person syndrome,” Front Neurol. Neurosci. 29: 147–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Economides, J. R. and Horton, J. C. (2005). “Eye movement abnormalities in stiff person syndrome,” Neurology 65: 1462–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fekete, R. and Jankovic, J. (2012). “Childhood stiff-person syndrome improved with rituximab,” Case Rep. Neurol. 4: 92–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ferracci, F., Bertiato, G., and Moretto, G. (2004). “Hashimoto’s encephalopathy: epidemiologic data and pathogenetic considerations,” J. Neurol. Sci. 217: 165–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ferracci, F. and Carnevale, A. (2006). “The neurological disorder associated with thyroid autoimmunity,” J. Neurol. 253: 975–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Floeter, M. K., Valls-Sole, J., Toro, C., Jacobowitz, D., and Hallet, M. (1998). “Physiologic studies of spinal inhibitory circuits in patients with stiff-person syndrome,” Neurology 51: 85–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Forchetti, C. M., Katsamakis, G., and Garron, D. C. (1997). “Autoimmune thyroiditis and a rapidly progressive dementia: global hypoperfusion on SPECT scanning suggests a possible mechanism,” Neurology 49: 623–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freeman, H. J. (2008). “Neurological disorders in adult celiac disease,” Can. J. Gastroenterol. 22: 909–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fujii, A., Yoneda, M., Ito, T., Yamamura, O., Satomi, S., Higa, H., et al. (2005). “Autoantibodies against the amino terminal of α-enolase are a useful diagnostic marker of Hashimoto’s encephalopathy,” J. Neuroimmunol. 162: 130–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Furie, R., Ishikawa, T., Dhawan, V., and Eidelberg, D. (1994). “Alternating hemichorea in primary antiphospholipid syndrome: evidence for contralateral striatal hypermetabolism,” Neurology 44: 2197–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Galanaud, D., Dormont, D., Marsault, C., Wechsler, B., and Piette, J. C. (2000). “Brain MRI in patients with past lupus-associated chorea,” Stroke 31: 3079–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garcia-Cazorla, A., Quadros, E. V., Nascimento, A., Garcia-Silva, M. T., Briones, P., Montoya, J., et al. (2008). “Mitochondrial diseases associated with cerebral folate deficiency,” Neurology 70: 1360–2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garcia-Moreno, J. M. and Chacon, J. (2002). “Juvenile parkinsonism as a manifestation of systemic lupus erythematosus: case report and review of the literature,” Mov. Disord. 17: 1329–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geis, C., Weishaupt, A., Grünewald, B., Wultsch, T., Reif, A., Gerlach, M., et al. (2011). “Human stiff-person syndrome IgG induces anxious behavior in rats,” PLoS One 6: e16775.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goëb, V., Dubreuil, F., Cabre, P., Jean Baptiste, G., and Arfi, S. (2004). “Lupus revealing itself after a stiff-person syndrome,” Lupus 13: 215.Google ScholarPubMed
Gonzalez Aleman, G., Florenzano, N., Padilla, E., Bourdieu, M., Guerrero, G., Calvó, M., et al. (2006). “A 37-year-old woman with celiac disease, recurrent psychosis, and parkinsonism,” Mov. Disord. 21: 729–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hadjivassiliou, M., Davies-Jones, G. A. B., Sanders, D. S., and Grünewald, R. A. G. (2003a). “Dietary treatment of gluten ataxia,” J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 74: 1221–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hadjivassiliou, M., Grünewald, R. A., Chattopadhyay, A. K., Davies-Jones, G. A., Gibson, A., Jarratt, J. A., et al. (1998). “Clinical, radiological, neurophysiological, and neuropathological characteristics of gluten ataxia,” Lancet Neurol. 352: 1582–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hadjivassiliou, M., Grünewald, R., Sharrack, B., Sanders, D., Lobo, A., Williamson, C., et al. (2003b). “Gluten ataxia in perspective: epidemiology, genetic susceptibility and clinical characteristics,” Brain 126: 685–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hadjivassiliou, M., Mäki, M., Sanders, D. S., Williamson, C. A., Grünewald, R. A., Woodroofe, N. M., et al. (2006). “Autoantibody targeting of brain and intestinal transglutaminase in gluten ataxia,” Neurology 66: 373–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hadjivassiliou, M., Sanders, D. S., Woodoofe, N., Boscolo, S., and Aeschlimann, D. (2010). “Gluten sensitivity: from gut to brain,” Lancet Neurol. 9: 318–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hall, D. A., Parsons, J., and Benke, T. (2007). “Paroxysmal nonkinesigenic dystonia and celiac disease,” Mov. Disord. 22: 708–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hassin-Baer, S., Levy, Y., Langevitz, P., Nakar, S., and Ehrenfeld, M. (2007). “Anti-beta2-glycoprotein I in Sjögren’s syndrome is associated with parkinsonism,” Clin. Rheumatol. 26: 743–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hyland, K., Shoffner, J., and Heales, S. J. (2010). “Cerebral folate deficiency,” J. Inherit. Metab. Dis. 33: 563–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ihara, M., Makino, F., Sawada, H., Mezaki, T., Mizutani, K., Nakase, H., et al. (2006). “Gluten sensitivity in Japanese patients with adult-onset cerebellar ataxia,” Intern. Med. 45: 135–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Irani, S. R., Pettingill, P., Kleopa, K. A., Schiza, N., Waters, P., Mazia, C., et al. (2012). “Morvan syndrome: clinical and serological observations in 29 cases,” Ann. Neurol. 72: 241–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jankovic, J. (2009). “Treatment of hyperkinetic movement disorders,” Lancet Neurol. 8: 844–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jankovic, J. and Patten, B. M. (1987). “Blepharospasm and autoimmune diseases,” Mov. Disord. 2: 159–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Joseph, F. G., Lammie, G. A., and Scolding, N. J. (2007). “CNS lupus: a study of 41 patients,” Neurology 14(69): 644–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Joseph, F. G. and Scolding, N. J. (2007). “Neuro-Behçet’s disease in Caucasians: a study of 22 patients,” Eur. J. Neurol. 14: 174–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Khamashta, M. A., Gil, A., Anciones, B., Lavilla, P., Valencia, M. E., Pintado, V., et al. (1988). “Chorea in systemic lupus erythematosus: association with antiphospholipid antibodies,” Ann. Rheum. Dis. 47: 681–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Khubchandani, R. P., Viswanathan, V., and Desai, J. (2007). “Unusual neurologic manifestations (I): Parkinsonism in juvenile SLE,” Lupus 16: 572–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klaas, J. P., Ahlskog, J. E., Pittock, S. J., Matsumoto, J. Y., Aksamit, A. J., Bartleson, J. D., et al. (2012). “Adult-onset opsoclonus-myoclonus syndrome,” Arch. Neurol. 17: 1–10.Google Scholar
Koerner, C., Wieland, B., Richter, W., and Meinck, H. M. (2004). “Stiff-person syndromes: motor cortex hyperexcitability correlates with anti-GAD autoimmunity,” Neurology 62: 1357–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kok, J., Bosseray, A., Brion, J. P., Micoud, M., and Besson, G. (1993). “Chorea in a child with Churg-Strauss syndrome,” Stroke 24: 1263–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krakauer, M. and Law, I. (2009). “FDG PET brain imaging in neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosis with choreic symptoms,” Clin. Nucl. Med. 34: 122–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kunas, R. C., McRae, A., Kesselring, J., and Villiger, P. M. (1995). “Antidopaminergic antibodies in a patient with a complex autoimmune disorder and rapidly progressing Parkinson’s disease,” J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 96: 688–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kurian, M., Lalive, P. H., Dalmau, J. O., and Horvath, J. (2010). “Opsoclonus-myoclonus syndrome in anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis,” Arch. Neurol. 67: 118–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuriwaka, R., Kunishige, M., Nakahira, H., Inoue, H., Higashi, T., Tokumoto, Y., et al. (2004). “Neuro-Behçet’s disease with chorea after remission of intestinal Behçet’s disease,” Clin. Rheumatol. 23: 364–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lazurova, I., Macejova, Z., Benhatchi, K., Oetterova, M., Antolova, E., Asherson, R. A., et al. (2007). “Efficacy of intravenous immunoglobulin treatment in lupus erythematosus chorea,” Clin. Rheumatol. 26: 2145–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, P. H., Joo, U. S., Bang, O. Y., Seo, C. H. (2004). “Basal ganglia hyperperfusion in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus-related parkinsonism,” Neurology 63: 395–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levy, L. M., Levy-Reis, I., Fujii, M., and Dalakas, M. C. (2005). “Brain gamma-aminobutyric acid changes in stiff-person syndrome,” Arch. Neurol. 62: 970–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liu, B. and Dluzen, D. E. (2007). “Oestrogen and nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurodegeneration: animal models and clinical reports of Parkinson’s disease,” Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 34: 555–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lohmann, T., Hawa, M., Leslie, R. D., Lane, R., Picard, J., and Londei, M. (2000). “Immune reactivity to glutamic acid decarboxylase 65 in stiff-man syndrome and type 1 diabetes mellitus,” Lancet Neurol. 356: 31–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mahad, D., Oates, K., Williams, C., Grunewald, R. A., Howell, S. J. L., Woodroofe, M. N., et al. (2002). “Gluten ataxia is immune mediated,” J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 72: 140.Google Scholar
Martino, D., Chew, N. K., Mir, P., Edwards, M. J., Quinn, N. P., and Bhatia, K. P. (2006). “Atypical movement disorders in antiphospholipid syndrome,” Mov. Disord. 21: 944–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mas, N., Saiz, A., Leite, M. I., Waters, P., Baron, M., Castano, D., et al. (2011). “Antiglycine-receptor encephalomyelitis with rigidity,” J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 82: 1399–401.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mayo, J., Arias, M., Leno, C., and Berciano, J. (1986). “Vascular parkinsonism and periarteritis nodosa,” Neurology 36: 874–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McKeon, A., Robinson, M. T., McEvoy, K. M., Matsumoto, J. Y., Lennon, V. A., Ahlskog, J. E., et al. (2012). “Stiff-man syndrome and variants: clinical course, treatments, and outcomes,” Arch. Neurol. 69: 230–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meinck, H. M., Tronnier, V., Rieke, K., Wirtz, C. R., Flügel, D., and Schwab, S. (1994). “Intrathecal baclofen treatment for stiff-man syndrome: pump failure may be fatal,” Neurology 44: 2209–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Min, J. H. and Youn, Y. C. (2009). “Bilateral basal ganglia lesions of primary Sjögren’s syndrome presenting with generalized chorea,” Parkinsonism Relat. Disord. 15: 398–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mocellin, R., Walterfang, M., and Velakoulis, D. (2007). “Hashimoto’s encephalopathy: epidemiology, pathogenesis and management,” CNS Drugs 21: 799–811.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moersch, F. P. and Woltman, H. W. (1956). “Progressive fluctuating muscular rigidity and spasm (‘stiff-man’ syndrome); report of a case and some observations in 13 other cases,” Proc. Staff Meet Mayo Clin. 31: 421–7.Google ScholarPubMed
Moretti, P., Sahoo, T., Hyland, K., Bottiglieri, T., Peters, S., del Gaudio, D., et al. (2005). “Cerebral folate deficiency with developmental delay, autism, and response to folinic acid,” Neurology 64: 1088–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Munhoz, R. P., Fameli, H., and Teive, H. A. G. (2010). “Stiff person syndrome as the initial manifestation of systemic lupus erythematosus,” Mov. Disord. 25: 516–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murinson, B. B. and Murinson, J. B. (2008). “Stiff-person syndrome with amphiphysin antibodies: distinctive features of a rare disease,” Neurology 71: 1955–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ormazabal, A., Artuch, R., Vilaseca, M. A., Aracil, A., and Pineda, M. (2005). “Cerebrospinal fluid concentrations of folate, biogenic amines and pterins in Rett syndrome: treatment with folinic acid,” Neuropediatrics 36: 380–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Orzechowski, N. M., Wolanskyj, A. P., Ahlskog, J. E., Kumar, N., and Moder, K. G. (2008). “Antiphospholipid antibody-associated chorea,” J. Rheumatol. 35: 2165–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pellecchia, M. T., Ambrosio, G., Salvatore, E., Vitale, C., De Michele, G., and Barone, P. (2002). “Possible gluten sensitivity in multiple system atrophy,” Neurology 59: 1114–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perani, D., Garibotto, V., Moresco, R. M., Ortelli, P., Corbo, M., Fazio, F., et al. (2007). “PET evidence of central GABAergic changes in stiff-person syndrome,” Mov. Disord. 22: 1030–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pereira, A. C., Edwards, M. J., Buttery, P. C., Hawkes, C. H., Quinn, N. P., Giovannoni, G., et al. (2004). “Choreic syndrome and coeliac disease: a hitherto unrecognized association,” Mov. Disord. 19: 478–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Piccolo, I., Defanti, C. A., Soliveri, P., Volontè, M. A., Cislaghi, G., and Girotti, F. (2003). “Cause and course in a series of patients with sporadic chorea,” J. Neurol. 250: 429–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pozo-Rosich, P., Villoslada, P., Canton, A., Simo, R., Rovira, A., and Montalban Xavier, I. (2002). “Reversible white matter alterations in encephalopathy associated with autoimmune thyroid disease,” J. Neurol. 249: 1063–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raju, R., Rakocevic, G., Chen, Z., Hoehn, G., Semino-Mora, C., Shi, W., et al. (2006). “Autoimmunity to GABAA-receptor-associated protein in stiff-person syndrome,” Brain 129: 3270–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramaekers, V. T., Rothenberg, S. P., Sequeira, J. M., Opladen, T., Blau, N., Quadros, E. V., et al. (2005). “Autoantibodies to folate receptors in the cerebral folate deficiency syndrome,” N. Engl. J. Med. 352: 1985–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramaekers, V. T., Sequeira, J. M., Blau, N., and Quadros, E. V. (2008). “A milk-free diet downregulates folate receptor autoimmunity in cerebral folate deficiency syndrome,” Dev. Med. Child Neurol. 50: 346–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reiner, P., Galanaud, D., Leroux, G., Vidailhet, M., Haroche, J., and Huong, D. L. (2011). “Long-term outcome of 32 patients with chorea and systemic lupus erythematosus and antiphospholipid syndrome,” Mov. Disord. 26: 2422–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Revilla, F. J., Racette, B. A., and Perlmutter, J. S. (2000). “Chorea and jaw-opening dystonia as a manifestation of Neuro-Behçet’s syndrome,” Mov. Disord. 15: 741–4.3.0.CO;2-5>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ruiz-Irastorza, G., Crowther, M., Branch, W., and Khamashta, M. A. (2010). “Antiphospholipid syndrome,” Lancet Neurol. 376: 1498–509.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Santambrogio, L., Bellomo, G., Mercuri, M., Alagia, G., and Ciuffetti, G. (1990). “Temporal arteritis presenting as an extrapyramidal disorder,” Acta Neurol. Scand. 81: 361–2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Serdaroglu, P. (1998). “Behçet’s disease and the nervous system,” J. Neurol. 245: 197–205.Google Scholar
Singer, H. S., Krumholz, A., Giuliano, J., and Kiessling, L. S. (1997). “Antiphospholipid antibodies: An epiphenomenon in Tourette syndrome,” Mov. Disord. 12: 738–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Solimena, M., Folli, F., Denis-Donini, S., Comi, G. C., Pozza, G., De Camilli, P., et al. (1988). “Autoantibodies to glutamic acid decarboxylase in a patient with stiff-man syndrome, epilepsy, and type I diabetes mellitus,” N. Engl. J. Med. 318: 1012–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tan, E. K., Chan, T. T., and Auchus, A. P. (2001). “Reversible parkinsonism in systemic lupus erythematosus,” J. Neurol. Sci. 193: 53–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tsokos, G.C. (2011). “Systemic lupus erythematosus,” N. Engl. J. Med. 365: 2110–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van den Berg, J. S., Horstink, M. W., van den Hoogen, F. H., and Oyen, W. J. (1999). “Dystonia; a central nervous system presentation of Sjögren’s syndrome,” Mov. Disord. 14: 374–5.3.0.CO;2-W>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walker, R. H., Spiera, H., Brin, M. F., and Olanow, C. W. (1999). “Parkinsonism associated with Sjögren’s syndrome: three cases and a review of the literature,” Mov. Disord. 14: 262–8.3.0.CO;2-6>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whiterick, J., Highley, J. R., and Hadjivassiliou, M. (2011). “Pathological findings in a case of stiff person syndrome with anti-GAD antibodies,” Mov. Disord. 26: 2138–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilkinson, I. D., Hadjivassiliou, M., Dickson, J. M., Wallis, L., Grünewald, R. A., Coley, S. C., et al. (2005). “Cerebellar abnormalities on proton MR spectroscopy in gluten ataxia,” J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 76: 1011–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yoneda, M., Fujii, A., Ito, A., Yokoyama, H., Nakagawa, H., and Kuriyama, M. (2007). “High-prevalence of serum autoantibodies against the amino-terminal of α-enolase in Hashimoto’s encephalopathy,” J. Neuroimmunol. 185: 195–200.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zelnik, N., Pacht, A., Obeid, R., and Lerner, A. (2004). “Range of neurologic disorders in patients with celiac disease,” Pediatrics 113: 1672–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×