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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 05 November 2011
This chapter begins with a superficial review of examples of orographic effects on atmospheric motion. The major part of the chapter is a review of various ways of incorporating orography into prediction models. Advantages and disadvantages of different vertical coordinate systems are discussed in relation to the calculation of the pressure force and advection terms. The representation of very steep mountains as blocking walls is also considered and some viewpoints on initialization problems are presented.
The principal methods in current use
The results of many numerical model experiments have indicated that when the Earth's topography is taken into account an improved simulation of the atmospheric circulation is achieved (see for example, Hahn and Manabe 1975; Hahn and Manabe, 1976; Kasahara et al., 1973; Manabe and Terpstra, 1974; Sadler and Ramage, 1976). Generally, it is necessary to ensure that model results, intended to elucidate physical processes, are contaminated as little as possible by spurious effects that may be caused by the numerical treatment. This view appears to require special attention in conjunction with the incorporation of orography.
Orography is commonly described in the same way and with the same resolution as the other horizontally varying quantities of the numerical model. Most of this chapter is devoted to methods of that type. It has also been suggested that mountain ranges be regarded partly as vertical walls and such approaches also deserve attention and will be referred to.
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