Bretton Woods had envisaged a world without capital flows, neither short-term nor long-term, but market practitioners had other ideas, rebuilding markets first domestically and then internationally in a process Kindleberger understood as a kind of natural Darwinian evolution. Policymakers viewed these developments with increasing alarm, and economists such as Robert Triffin built careers stoking those fears. The result was economic policy first attempting to hold back natural evolution, and then ultimately abdicating responsibility in Nixon’s 1971 devaluation of the dollar, a decision Kindleberger would call the Crime of 1971.