Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dlnhk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-25T17:19:45.243Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

2 - What do you mean? Multimodal communication for a better signal transmission

from Part I - Communication: from sociality to society

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 May 2016

Ivan Norscia  and
Elisabetta Palagi
Foreword by
Alison Jolly  and
Ian Tatterall
Afterword by
Michael Huffman
Ivan Norscia
Affiliation:
Università degli Studi, Pisa
Elisabetta Palagi
Affiliation:
Università degli Studi, Pisa
Get access

Summary

Surrounding things transmit their images to the senses and the senses transfer them to the Sensation. Sensation sends them to the Common Sense, and by it they are stamped upon the memory and are there more or less retained according to the importance or force of the impression.

Leonardo Da Vinci, ca. 1510

What is multimodal communication?

The American journalist Sydney Harris briefly and effectively tagged the difference between information and communication. According to common definitions, information refers to facts about a situation, an individual or an event. Communication is ‘the process of sharing information, especially when this increases understanding between people or groups’ (Cambridge Dictionary) or ‘the imparting or exchanging of information by speaking, writing, or using some other medium’ (Oxford Dictionary). These definitions are centred on human communication when, in fact, communication is a widespread – and necessary – phenomenon spanning the whole animal kingdom. The light pulses of fireflies (Bradbury and Vehrencamp, 1998), the dance of honeybees (von Frisch, 1967; Seeley, 1997), the claw-waving displays of crustaceans (Dingle, 1969), the songs of birds (Vehrencamp, 2000), the alarm calls of different primates (Cheney and Seyfarth, 1990), and the articulate language of humans (Savage-Rumbaugh et al., 1998) are just some examples of information transmission between or among conspecifics.

Communication is an essential prerequisite for sociality and has evolved along with the development of social systems, from the simplest to the most complex (Freeberg et al., 2012). Communication involves the transmission of a signal, which is any action or trait produced by one animal, the sender, that provides information used by another animal, the receiver (Wilson, 1975; Endler, 1993; Hebets and Papaj, 2005). A signal is complex if it can be disassembled into different, single components, each of them able to elicit a response in the receiver. Such a response, of course, can be different from the response elicited by the complex signal. For example, when the telephone rings we stop doing what we are doing to answer. So, the ring has elicited a response in the receiver (us). Once we have picked up the phone, we can just hear a beep sequence if the signal is lost or we can hear the voice of a friend and start a conversation.

Type
Chapter
Information
The Missing Lemur Link
An Ancestral Step in the Evolution of Human Behaviour
 , pp. 30 - 53
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2016

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Begg, C. M., Begg, K. S., Du Toit, J. T. & Mills, M. G. L. (2003). Scent-marking behaviour of the honey badger, Mellivora capensis (Mustelidae), in the southern Kalahari. Animal Behaviour, 66, 917–929.Google Scholar
Bergman, T. (2013). Speech-like vocalized lip-smacking in geladas. Current Biology, 23, R268–R269.Google Scholar
Bradbury, J. K. & Veherencamp, S. L. (1998). Principles of Animal Communication. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland.
Brashares, J. S. & Arcese, P. (1999). Scent marking in a territorial African antelope. II. The economics of marking with faeces. Animal Behaviour, 57, 11–17.Google Scholar
Budnitz, N. & Dainis, K. (1975). Lemur catta: ecology and behavior. In: Tattersall, I. & Sussman, R. W. (eds), Lemur Biology. New York: Plenum, pp. 219–235.
Buesching, C. D., Heistermann, M., Hodges, J. K. & Zimmermann, E. (1998). Multimodal oestrus advertisement in a small nocturnal prosimian, Microcebus murinus. Folia Primatologica, 69(suppl 1), 295–308.Google Scholar
Cheney, D. L. & Seyfarth, R. M. (1990). How Monkeys See the World. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Clarke, P. M. R., Barrett, L. & Henzi, S. P. (2009). What role do olfactory cues play in chacma baboon mating?American Journal of Primatology, 71, 1–10.Google Scholar
de Waal, F. B. M. & Tyack, P. L. (2003). Animal Social Complexity: Intelligence, Culture, and Individualized Societies. Cambridge, Massachusetts:Harvard University Press.
Demuru, E., Ferrari, P. F. & Palagi, E. (2015). Emotionality and intentionality in bonobo playful communication. Animal Cognition, 18(1), 333–344.Google Scholar
Dingle, H. (1969). A statistical and informational analysis of aggressive communication in the mantis shrimp, Gonodactylus bredini. Animal Behaviour, 17, 561–575.Google Scholar
Dissanayake, E. (2006). Chapter I. In: S. Brown and U. Voglsten (eds), Music and Manipulation: on the social uses and social control of music. Oxford and New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 31–56.
Drea, C. M. & Scordato, E. S. (2008). Olfactory communication in the ringtailed lemur (Lemur catta): Form and function of multimodal signals. In: Jane, L., Hurst, J. L., Beynon, R. J., Roberts, C. S. & Wyatt, T. D. (eds), Chemical Signals in Vertebrates, 11. Springer., pp. 91–102.
Dubuc, C., Brent, L. J. N., Accamando, A. K., et al. (2009). Sexual skin color contains information about the timing of the fertile phase in free-ranging rhesus macaques. International Journal of Primatology, 30, 777–789.Google Scholar
Endler, J. A. (1993). Some general comments on the evolution and design of animal communication systems. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 340, 215–225.Google Scholar
Fitch, W. T. (1997). Vocal tract length and formant frequency dispersion correlate with body size in rhesus macaques. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 102, 1213–1222.Google Scholar
Freeberg, T. M., Dunbar, R. I. M. & Ord, T. J. (2012). Social complexity as a proximate and ultimate factor in communicative complexity. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 367, 1785–1801.Google Scholar
Genty, E. & Byrne, R. W. (2010). Why do gorillas make sequences of gestures?Animal Cognition, 13, 287–301.Google Scholar
Ghazanfar, A. A., Turesson, H. J., Maier, J. X., et al. (2007). Vocal tract resonances as indexical cues in rhesus monkeys. Current Biology, 17, 425–430.Google Scholar
Gielen, S. C. A. M., Schmidt, R. A. & van der Heuval, P. J. M. (1983). On the intersensory facilitation of reaction time. Perception and Psychophysics, 34, 161–168.Google Scholar
Gosling, L. M. (1987). Scent marking in an antelope lek territory. Animal Behaviour, 35, 620–622.Google Scholar
Gosling, L. M. & Roberts, S. C. (2001a). Scent-marking by male mammals: cheat-proof signals to competitors and mates. Advances in the Study of Behaviour, 30, 169–217.Google Scholar
Gosling, L. M., Roberts, S. C., Thornton, E. A. & Andrew, M. J. (2000). Life history costs of olfactory status signalling in mice. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 48, 328–332.Google Scholar
Grafe, T. U., Preininger, D, Sztatecsny, M, Kasah, R., Dehling, J. M., et al. (2012). Multimodal communication in a noisy environment: a case study of the bornean rock frog Staurois parvus. PLoS ONE, 7(5), e37965. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0037965.Google Scholar
Guildford, T. & Dawkins, M. S. (1991). Receiver psychology and the evolution of animal signals. Animal Behaviour, 42, 1–14.Google Scholar
Gustison, M. L., le Roux, A. & Bergman, T. J. (2012). Derived vocalizations of geladas (Theropithecus gelada) and the evolution of vocal complexity in primates. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 367, 1847–1859.Google Scholar
Hasson, O. (1994). Cheating signals. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 167, 223–238.Google Scholar
Hebets, E. A. & Papaj, D. R. (2005). Complex signal function: developing a framework of testable hypotheses. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 57, 197–214.Google Scholar
Higham, J. P. & Hebets, E. A. (2013). An introduction to multimodal communication. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 67, 1381–1388.Google Scholar
Higham, J. P., MacLarnon, A. M., Ross, C., Heistermann, M. & Semple, S. (2008). Baboon sexual swellings: information content of size and color. Hormones and Behaviour, 53, 452–462.Google Scholar
Higham, J. P., Semple, S., MacLarnon, A., Heistermann, M. & Ross, C. (2009). Female reproductive signals, and male mating behavior, in the olive baboon. Hormones and Behavior, 55, 60–67.Google Scholar
Higham, J. P., Brent, L. J. N., Dubuc, C., et al. (2010). Color signal information content and the eye of the beholder: a case study in the rhesus macaque. Behavioral Ecology, 21, 739–746.Google Scholar
Higham, J. P., Pfefferle, D, Heistermann, M., Maestripieri, D. & Stevens, M. (2013). Signaling in multiple modalities in male rhesus macaques: barks and sex skin coloration in relation to androgen levels, social status and mating behavior. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 67, 1457–1469.Google Scholar
Hobaiter, C. & Byrne, R. W. (2011). The gestural repertoire of the wild chimpanzee. Animal Cognition, 14, 745–767.Google Scholar
Horowitz, A. C. (2009). Attention to attention in domestic dog (Canis familiaris) dyadic play. Animal Cognition, 12, 107–118.Google Scholar
Hostetter, A. B., Cantero, M. & Hopkins, W. D. (2001). Differential use of vocal and gestural communication by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in response to the attentional status of a human (Homo sapiens). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 115, 337–343.Google Scholar
Jolly, A. (1966). Lemur Behaviour: a Madagascar Field Study. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Jolly, A. & Pride, E. (1999). Troop histories and range inertia of Lemur catta at Berenty, Madagascar: a 33-year perspective. International Journal of Primatology, 20, 359–373.Google Scholar
Jolly, A., Koyama, N., Rasamimanana, H., Crowley, H. & Williams, G. (2006). Berenty Reserve: a research site in southern Madagascar. In: Jolly, A, Sussman, R. W, Koyama, N & Rasamimanana, H (eds), Ringtailed Lemur Biology: Lemur catta in Madagascar. New York: Springer-Verlag Press, pp. 32–42.
Jones, C. B. & Van Cantfort, T. E. (2007). Multimodal communication by male mantled howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata) in sexual contexts: a descriptive analysis. Folia Primatologica, 78, 166–185.Google Scholar
Kappeler, P. M. (1990). Social status and scent-marking behaviour in Lemur catta. Animal Behaviour, 40, 774–776.Google Scholar
Kappeler, P. M. (1998). To whom it may concern: the transmission and function of chemical signals in Lemur catta. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 42, 411–421.Google Scholar
Kruuk, H. (1972). The Spotted Hyena: a study of predation and social behaviour. Illinois: University of Chicago Press.
Kulahci, I. G., Dornhaus, A. & Papaj, D. R. (2008). Multimodal signals enhance decision making in foraging bumble-bees. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 275, 797–802. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2007.1176.Google Scholar
Leavens, D. A. (2007). Animal cognition: multimodal tactics of orangutan communication. Current Biology, 17, R762–R764.Google Scholar
Leavens, D. A. & Hopkins, W. D. (2007). Multimodal concomitants of manual gestures by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). In: Liebal, K, Müller, C and Pika, S (eds), Gestural Communication in Nonhuman and Human Primates. Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Leavens, D. A., Hostetter, A. B., Wesley, M. J. & Hopkins, W. D. (2004). Tactical use of unimodal and bimodal communication by chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes. Animal Behaviour. 67, 467–476.Google Scholar
Lewis, R. J. & van Schaik, C. P. (2007). Bimorphism in male Verreaux’ sifaka in the Kirindy forest of Madagascar. International Journal of Primatology, 28, 159–182.Google Scholar
Liebal, K., Pika, S. & Tomasello, M. (2006). Gestural communication of orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus). Gesture, 6, 1–38.Google Scholar
Liebal, K., Waller, B. M., Burrows, A. M. & Slocombe, K. E. (2013). Primate Communicaton: A Multimodal Approach. Cambridge University Press.
Lovelace, C. T., Stein, B. E. & Wallace, M. T. (2003). An irrelevant light enhances auditory detection in humans: a psychophysical analysis of multisensory integration in stimulus detection. Cognitive Brain Research, 17, 447–453.Google Scholar
Maestripieri, D. & Roney, J. R. (2005). Primate copulation calls and post-copulatory female choice. Behavioral Ecology, 16, 106–113.Google Scholar
Markl, H. (1983). Vibrational communication. In: Huber, R. & Markl, H. (eds), Neurobiology and Behavioral Physiology. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer, pp. 332–353.
Marler, P. (1961). The logical analysis of animal communication. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 1, 295–317.Google Scholar
McGurk, H. & MacDonald, J. (1976). Hearing lips and seeing voices. Nature, 264, 746–748.Google Scholar
Michael, R. P. & Keverne, E. (1968). Pheromones in the communication of sexual status in primates. Nature, 218, 746–749.Google Scholar
Micheletta, J., Engelhardt, A., Matthews, L., Agil, M. & Waller, B. M. (2013). Multicomponent and multimodal lipsmacking in crested macaques (Macaca nigra). American Journal of Primatology, 75(7), 763–773.Google Scholar
Nakamichi, M. & Koyama, M. (1997). Social relationships among ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) in two free-ranging troops at Berenty Reserve, Madagascar. International Journal of Primatology, 18, 73–93.Google Scholar
Norscia, I. & Palagi, E. (2008). Berenty 2006: census of Propithecus verreauxi and possible evidence of population stress. International Journal of Primatology, 29, 1099–1115.Google Scholar
Nunn, C. L. & Deaner, R. O. (2004). Patterns of participation and free riding in territorial conflicts among ringtailed lemurs (Lemur catta). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 57, 50–61.Google Scholar
Ono, Y., Ikeda, T., Baba, H., et al. (1988). Territoriality of Guenther's dikdik in the Omo National Park, Ethiopia. African Journal of Ecology, 26, 33–49.Google Scholar
Palagi, E. & Dapporto, L. (2006a). Beyond odour discrimination: demonstrating individual recognition in Lemur catta. Chemical Senses, 31, 437–443.Google Scholar
Palagi, E. & Dapporto, L. (2006b). Urine marking and urination in Lemur catta: a comparison of design features. Annales Zoologici Fennici, 43, 280–284.Google Scholar
Palagi, E. & Norscia, I. (2009). Multimodal signaling in wild Lemur catta: economic design and territorial function of urine marking. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 139, 182–192.Google Scholar
Palagi, E., Telara, S. & Borgognini-Tarli, S. M. (2003). Sniffing behavior in Lemur catta: seasonality, sex, and rank. International Journal of Primatology, 24, 335–350.Google Scholar
Palagi, E., Telara, S. & Borgognini-Tarli, S. M. (2004). Reproductive strategies in Lemur catta: balance among sending, receiving, and counter-marking scent signals. International Journal of Primatology, 25, 1019–1031.Google Scholar
Palagi, E., Dapporto, L. & Borgognini-Tarli, S. (2005). The neglected scent: on the marking function of urine in Lemur catta. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 58, 437–445.Google Scholar
Palagi, E., Leone, A., Mancini, G. & Ferrari, P. F. (2009). Contagious yawning in gelada baboons as a possible expression of empathy. PNAS, 106, 19262–19267.Google Scholar
Palagi, E., Burghardt, G. M., Smuts, B., et al. (2015). Rough-and-tumble play as a window on animal communication. Biological Reviews.Google Scholar
Parr, L. A. (2004). Perceptual biases for multimodal cues in chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) affect recognition. Animal Cognition, 7, 171–178.Google Scholar
Partan, S. (2013). Ten unanswered questions in multimodal communication. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 67, 1523–1539.Google Scholar
Partan, S. & Marler, P. (1999). Communication goes multimodal. Science, 283(5406), 1272–1273.Google Scholar
Partan, S. R. & Marler, P. (2005). Issues in the classification of multisensory communication signals. American Naturalist, 166, 231–245.Google Scholar
Peters, R. P. & Mech, L. D. (1975). Scent-marking in wolves. American Scientist, 63, 628–637.Google Scholar
Pochron, S. T. & Wright, P. C. (2003). Variability in adult group compositions of a prosimian primate. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 54, 285–293.Google Scholar
Pollick, A. S. & de Waal, F. B. M. (2007). Ape gestures and language evolution. PNAS, 104, 8184–8189.Google Scholar
Poss, S. R., Kuhar, C., Stoinski, T. S. & Hopkins, W. D. (2006). Differential use of attentional and visual communicative signaling by orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) and gorillas (Gorilla gorilla) in response to the attentional status of a human.American Journal of Primatology, 68, 978–992.Google Scholar
Radcliffe-Brown, A. R. (1948). The Andaman Islanders. Glencoe, IL: The Free Press.
Renoult, J. P.Schaefer, H. M., Sallé, B. & Charpentier, M. J. E. (2011). The evolution of the multicoloured face of mandrills: insights from the perceptual space of colour vision. PLoS ONE, 6(12), e29117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0029117.Google Scholar
Rigaill, L., Higham, J. P., Lee, P. C., Blin, A. & Garcia, C. (2013). Multimodal sexual signaling and mating behavior in olive baboons (Papio anubis). American Journal of Primatology, 75, 774–787.Google Scholar
Roper, T. J., Contradt, L., Butler, J., et al. (1993). Territorial marking with faeces in badgers (Meles meles): a comparison of boundary and hinterland latrine use. Behaviour, 127, 289–307.Google Scholar
Rowe, C. (1999). Receiver psychology and the evolution of multicomponent signals. Animal Behaviour, 58, 921–931.Google Scholar
Rushmore, J., Leonhardt, S. D. & Drea, C. M. (2012). Sight or scent: lemur sensory reliance in detecting food quality varies with feeding ecology. PLoS ONE, 7(8), e41558. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0041558.Google Scholar
Ruxton, G. D. & Schaefer, H. M. (2013). Game theory, multi-modal signalling and the evolution of communication. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 67, 1417–1423.Google Scholar
Sauther, M. L. (1991). Reproductive behavior of free-ranging Lemur catta at Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, Madagascar. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 84, 463–477.Google Scholar
Sauther, M. L., Sussman, R. W. & Gould, L. (1999). The socioecology of the ringtailed lemur: Thirty-five years of research. Evolutionary Anthropology, 8, 120–132.Google Scholar
Savage-Rumbaugh, S., Stuart, S. G. & Talbot, T. J. (1998). Apes, Language, and the Human Mind.New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press.
Sclafani, V., Norscia, I., Antonacci, D. & Palagi, E. (2012). Scratching around mating: factors affecting anxiety in wild Lemur catta. Primates, 53, 247–254.Google Scholar
Scordato, E. S. & Drea, C. M. (2007). Scents and sensibility: information content of olfactory signals in the ringtailed lemur, Lemur catta. Animal Behaviour, 73, 301–314.Google Scholar
Seeley, T. D. (1997). Honey bee colonies are group-level adaptive units. The American Naturalist, 150(supplement), 522–541.Google Scholar
Semple, S. & Higham, J. P. (2013). Primate signals: Current issues and perspectives. American Journal of Primatology, 75, 613–620.Google Scholar
Setchell, J. M. & Dixson, A. F. (2001a). Arrested development of secondary sexual adornments in subordinate adult male mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx). American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 115, 245–252.Google Scholar
Setchell, J. M. & Dixson, A. F. (2001b). Changes in the secondary sexual adornments of male mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx) are associated with gain and loss of alpha status. Hormones and Behaviour, 39, 177–184.Google Scholar
Setchell, J. M. & Dixson, A. F. (2002). Developmental variables and dominance rank in male mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx). American Journal of Primatology, 56, 9–25.Google Scholar
Setchell, J. M. & Kappeler, P. M. (2003). Selection in relation to sex in primates. Advances in the Study of Behavior, 33, 87–173.Google Scholar
Setchell, J. M., Lee, P. C., Wickings, E. J. & Dixson, A. F. (2001). Growth and ontogeny of sexual size dimorphism in the mandrill (Mandrillus sphinx). American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 115, 349–360.Google Scholar
Setchell, J. M., Charpentier, M., Abbott, K. A., Wickings, E. J. & Knapp, L. A. (2009). Is brightest best? Testing the Hamilton-Zuk hypothesis in mandrills. International Journal of Primatology, 30, 825–844.Google Scholar
Slocombe, K. E. & Zuberbuhler, K. (2005). Agonistic screams in wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) vary as a function of social role. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 119, 67–77.Google Scholar
Slocombe, K. E., Waller, B. M. & Liebal, K. (2011). The language void: the need for multimodality in primate communication research. Animal Behaviour, 81(5), 919–924.Google Scholar
Smith, C. L. & Evans, C. S. (2013). A new heuristic for capturing the complexity of multimodal signals. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 67, 1389–1398.Google Scholar
Smith, W. J. (1977). The Behavior of Communicating: an ethological approach. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Sun, L., Xiao, B. & Dai, N. (1994). Scent marking behaviour in the male Chinese water deer. Acta Theriologica, 39, 177–184.Google Scholar
Sussman, R. W. & Richard, A. (1974). The role of aggression among diurnal prosimians. In: Hollowey, L. R. (ed.), Primate Aggression, Territoriality, and Xenophobia: a comparative perspective. New York: Academic Press, pp. 49–76.
Taylor, R. C., Klein, B. A., Stein, J. & Ryan, M. J. (2008). Faux frogs: multi-modal signalling and the value of robotics in animal behavior. Animal Behaviour, 76, 1089–1097.Google Scholar
Tomasello, M., Call, J., Nagell, K., Olguin, K. & Carpenter, M. (1994). The learning and use of gestural signals by young chimpanzees: A trans-generational study. Primates, 35, 137–154.Google Scholar
Uy, J. A. C. & Safran, R. J. (2013). Variation in the temporal and spatial use of signals and its implications for multimodal communication. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 67, 1499–1511.Google Scholar
Vehrencamp, S. (2000). Handicap, index, and conventional signal elements of bird song. In: Espmark, Y., Amundsen, T. T. & Rosenqvist, G. (eds), Animal Signals: Signalling and Signal Design in Animal Communication. Trondheim: Tapir Academic Press, pp. 277–300.
von Frisch, K. (1967). The Dance Language and Orientation of Bees. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Waller, B. M., Liebal, K., Burrows, A. M. & Slocombe, K. E. (2013). How can a multimodal approach to primate communication help us understand the evolution of communication?Evolutionary Psychology, 11, 538–549.Google Scholar
Wilson, A., Dean, M. & Higham, J. P. (2013). A game theoretic approach to multimodal communication. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 67, 1399–1415.Google Scholar
Wilson, E. O. (1975). Sociobiology: The New Synthesis. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Wright, P. C. (1999). Lemur traits and Madagascar ecology: coping with an island environment. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 110(Suppl 29), 31–72.Google Scholar
Wyatt, T. D. (2003). Pheromones and Animal Behaviour: Communication by Smell and Taste. Cambridge University Press.

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×