Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-q99xh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T07:33:23.735Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Section 3 - Clinical Evaluation and Treatment of Male Infertility

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 December 2023

Edited by
Douglas T. Carrell ,
Alexander W. Pastuszak  and
James M. Hotaling
Douglas T. Carrell
Affiliation:
Utah Center for Reproductive Medicine
Alexander W. Pastuszak
Affiliation:
University of Utah
James M. Hotaling
Affiliation:
Utah Center for Reproductive Medicine
Get access
Type
Chapter
Information
Men's Reproductive and Sexual Health Throughout the Lifespan
An Integrated Approach to Fertility, Sexual Function, and Vitality
 , pp. 97 - 158
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2023

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References

Sigman, M, Lipshultz, LI, Howards, S. Office evaluation of the subfertile male. In: Lipshultz, L, Howards, S, Niederberger, C, eds. Infertility in the Male. 4th ed. Cambridge University Press; 2009:153–176.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spira, A. Epidemiology of human reproduction. Hum Reprod. 1986;1(2):111–115.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Misell, LM, Holochwost, D, Boban, D, et al. A stable isotope-mass spectrometric method for measuring human spermatogenesis kinetics in vivo. J Urol. 2006;175(1):242–246; discussion 6.Google Scholar
Levitas, E, Lunenfeld, E, Weiss, N, et al. Relationship between the duration of sexual abstinence and semen quality: analysis of 9,489 semen samples. Fertil Steril. 2005;83(6):1680–1686.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burrows, PJ, Schrepferman, CG, Lipshultz, LI. Comprehensive office evaluation in the new millennium. Urol Clin North Am. 2002;29(4):873–894.Google Scholar
De Palma, A, Vicari, E, Palermo, I, D’Agata, R, Calogero, AE. Effects of cancer and anti-neoplastic treatment on the human testicular function. J Endocrinol Invest. 2000;23(10):690–696.Google Scholar
Chipkevitch, E, Nishimura, RT, Tu, DG, Galea-Rojas, M. Clinical measurement of testicular volume in adolescents: comparison of the reliability of 5 methods. J Urol. 1996;156(6):2050–2053.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fretz, PC, Sandlow, JI. Varicocele: current concepts in pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment. Urol Clin North Am. 2002;29(4):921–937.Google Scholar
Cooper, TG, Noonan, E, von Eckardstein, S, et al. World Health Organization reference values for human semen characteristics. Hum Reprod Update. 2010;16(3):231–245.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Practice Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine. Diagnostic evaluation of the infertile male: a committee opinion. Fertil Steril. 2015;103(3):e18–25.Google Scholar
Kim, ED, Lipshultz, LI. Advances in the evaluation and treatment of the infertile man. World J Urol. 1997;15(6):378–393.Google Scholar
van der Merwe, FH, Kruger, TF, Oehninger, SC, Lombard, CJ. The use of semen parameters to identify the subfertile male in the general population. Gynecol Obstet Invest. 2005;59(2):86–91.Google Scholar
Sigman, M, Jarow, JP. Endocrine evaluation of infertile men. Urology. 1997;50(5):659–664.Google Scholar
Chiou, RK, Anderson, JC, Wobig, RK, et al. Color Doppler ultrasound criteria to diagnose varicoceles: correlation of a new scoring system with physical examination. Urology. 1997;50(6):953–956.Google Scholar
Jurewicz, M, Gilbert, BR. Imaging and angiography in male factor infertility. Fertil Steril. 2016;105(6):1432–1442.Google Scholar
Belker, AM, Steinbock, GS. Transrectal prostate ultrasonography as a diagnostic and therapeutic aid for ejaculatory duct obstruction. J Urol. 1990;144(2 Pt 1):356–358.Google Scholar
Jarow, JP. Endocrine causes of male infertility. Urol Clin North Am. 2003;30(1):83–90.Google Scholar
Ghieh, F, Mitchell, V, Mandon-Pepin, B, Vialard, F. Genetic defects in human azoospermia. Basic Clin Androl. 2019;29:4.Google Scholar
Smith, RP, Coward, RM, Lipshultz, LI. The office visit. Urol Clin North Am. 2014;41(1):19–37.Google Scholar
Yanushpolsky, EH, Politch, JA, Hill, JA, Anderson, DJ. Antibiotic therapy and leukocytospermia: a prospective, randomized, controlled study. Fertil Steril. 1995;63(1):142–147.Google Scholar
Aitken, RJ, Buckingham, D, West, K, Wu, FC, Zikopoulos, K, Richardson, DW. Differential contribution of leucocytes and spermatozoa to the generation of reactive oxygen species in the ejaculates of oligozoospermic patients and fertile donors. J Reprod Fertil. 1992;94(2):451–462.Google Scholar
Egozcue, S, Blanco, J, Vendrell, JM, et al. Human male infertility: chromosome anomalies, meiotic disorders, abnormal spermatozoa and recurrent abortion. Hum Reprod Update. 2000;6(1):93–105.Google Scholar
Oates, RD, Lamb, DJ. Genetic aspects of infertility. In: Lipshultz, L, Howards, S, Niederberger, C, eds. Infertility in the Male. 4th ed. Cambridge University Press; 2009:171–189.Google Scholar
de Souza, DAS, Faucz, FR, Pereira-Ferrari, L, Sotomaior, VS, Raskin, S. Congenital bilateral absence of the vas deferens as an atypical form of cystic fibrosis: reproductive implications and genetic counseling. Andrology. 2018;6(1):127–135.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ravel, C, Berthaut, I, Bresson, JL, Siffroi, JP, Genetics Commission of the French Federation of CECOS. Prevalence of chromosomal abnormalities in phenotypically normal and fertile adult males: large-scale survey of over 10,000 sperm donor karyotypes. Hum Reprod. 2006;21(6):1484–1489.Google Scholar
Van Assche, E, Bonduelle, M, Tournaye, H, et al. Cytogenetics of infertile men. Hum Reprod. 1996;11(Suppl. 4):1–24; discussion 5–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wu, X, Goodyear, SM, Abramowitz, LK, et al. Fertile offspring derived from mouse spermatogonial stem cells cryopreserved for more than 14 years. Hum Reprod. 2012;27(5):1249–1259.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
James, E, Jenkins, TG. Epigenetics, infertility, and cancer: future directions. Fertil Steril. 2018;109(1):27–32.Google Scholar
Murdica, V, Giacomini, E, Alteri, A, et al. Seminal plasma of men with severe asthenozoospermia contain exosomes that affect spermatozoa motility and capacitation. Fertil Steril. 2019;111(5):897–908 e2.Google Scholar

References

Bhasin, S, de Kretser, DM, Baker, HW. Clinical review 64: pathophysiology and natural history of male infertility. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1994;79:1525–1529.Google Scholar
Kovac, JR, Pastuszak, AW, Lamb, DJ. The use of genomics, proteomics, and metabolomics in identifying biomarkers of male infertility. Fertil Steril. 2013;99:998–1007.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Madhukar, D, Rajender, S. Hormonal treatment of male infertility: promises and pitfalls. J Androl. 2009;30:95–112.Google Scholar
Kovac, JR, Flood, D, Mullen, JB, Fischer, MA. Diagnosis and treatment of azoospermia resulting from testicular sarcoidosis. J Androl. 2012;33:162–166.Google Scholar
Kovac, JR, Golev, D, Khan, V, Fischer, MA. Case of the month # 168: seminal vesicle cysts with ipsilateral renal dysgenesis. Can Assoc Radiol J. 2011;62:223–225.Google Scholar
Kovac, JR, Smith, RP, Lipshultz, LI. Relationship between advanced paternal age and male fertility highlights an impending paradigm shift in reproductive biology. Fertil Steril. 2013;100:58–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kovac, JR, Addai, J, Smith, RP, Coward, RM, Lamb, DJ, Lipshultz, LI. The effects of advanced paternal age on fertility. Asian J Androl. 2013;15:723–728.Google Scholar
Hakky, TS, Coward, RM, Smith, RP, Kovac, JR, Lipshultz, LI. Vasovasostomy: a step-by-step surgical technique video. Fertil Steril. 2014;101:e14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lehmann, KJ, Kovac, JR, Xu, J, Fischer, MA. Isodicentric Yq mosaicism presenting as infertility and maturation arrest without altered SRY and AZF regions. J Assist Reprod Genet. 2012;29:939–942.Google Scholar
Kovac, JR, Lipshultz, LI. Interaction between oviductal epithelial cells and spermatozoa underlies a systems biology approach to treating infertility. Fertil Steril. 2013;99:1207–1208.Google Scholar
Patel, DP, Chandrapal, JC, Hotaling, JM. Hormone-based treatments in subfertile males. Curr Urol Rep. 2016;17:56.Google Scholar
Hwang, K, Walters, RC, Lipshultz, LI. Contemporary concepts in the evaluation and management of male infertility. Nat Rev Urol. 2011;8:86–94.Google Scholar
McLachlan, RI. The endocrine control of spermatogenesis. Baillieres Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metabol. 2000;14:345–362.Google Scholar
Plant, TM, Marshall, GR. The functional significance of FSH in spermatogenesis and the control of its secretion in male primates. Endocr Rev. 2001;22:764–786.Google Scholar
Mehta, A, Nangia, AK, Dupree, JM, Smith, JF. Limitations and barriers in access to care for male factor infertility. Fertil Steril. 2016;105:1128–1137.Google Scholar
Kovac, JR, Khanna, A, Lipshultz, LI. The effects of cigarette smoking on male fertility. Postgrad Med. 2015;127:338–341.Google Scholar
Ramlau-Hansen, CH, Thulstrup, AM, Aggerholm, AS, Jensen, MS, Toft, G, Bonde, JP. Is smoking a risk factor for decreased semen quality? A cross-sectional analysis. Hum Reprod. 2007;22:188–196.Google Scholar
Kunzle, R, Mueller, MD, Hanggi, W, Birkhauser, MH, Drescher, H, Bersinger, NA. Semen quality of male smokers and nonsmokers in infertile couples. Fertil Steril. 2003;79:287–291.Google Scholar
Oyeyipo, IP, Raji, Y, Emikpe, BO, Bolarinwa, AF. Effects of nicotine on sperm characteristics and fertility profile in adult male rats: a possible role of cessation. J Reprod Infertil. 2011;12:201–207.Google Scholar
Wong, WY, Thomas, CM, Merkus, HM, Zielhuis, GA, Doesburg, WH, Steegers-Theunissen, RP. Cigarette smoking and the risk of male factor subfertility: minor association between cotinine in seminal plasma and semen morphology. Fertil Steril. 2000;74:930–935.Google Scholar
Karayiannis, D, Kontogianni, MD, Mendorou, C, Douka, L, Mastrominas, M, Yiannakouris, N. Association between adherence to the Mediterranean diet and semen quality parameters in male partners of couples attempting fertility. Hum Reprod. 2017;32:215–222.Google Scholar
Gaskins, AJ, Colaci, DS, Mendiola, J, Swan, SH, Chavarro, JE. Dietary patterns and semen quality in young men. Hum Reprod. 2012;27:2899–2907.Google Scholar
Chiu, YH, Afeiche, MC, Gaskins, AJ, et al. Sugar-sweetened beverage intake in relation to semen quality and reproductive hormone levels in young men. Hum Reprod. 2014;29:1575–1584.Google Scholar
Jensen, TK, Gottschau, M, Madsen, JO, et al. Habitual alcohol consumption associated with reduced semen quality and changes in reproductive hormones; a cross-sectional study among 1221 young Danish men. BMJ Open. 2014;4:e005462.Google Scholar
Jensen, TK, Swan, S, Jorgensen, N, et al. Alcohol and male reproductive health: a cross-sectional study of 8344 healthy men from Europe and the USA. Hum Reprod. 2014;29:1801–1809.Google Scholar
Magnusdottir, EV, Thorsteinsson, T, Thorsteinsdottir, S, Heimisdottir, M, Olafsdottir, K. Persistent organochlorines, sedentary occupation, obesity and human male subfertility. Hum Reprod. 2005;20:208–215.Google Scholar
Stoy, J, Hjollund, NH, Mortensen, JT, Burr, H, Bonde, JP. Semen quality and sedentary work position. Int J Androl. 2004;27:5–11.Google Scholar
Gaskins, AJ, Mendiola, J, Afeiche, M, Jorgensen, N, Swan, SH, Chavarro, JE. Physical activity and television watching in relation to semen quality in young men. Br J Sports Med. 2015;49:265–270.Google Scholar
Jozkow, P, Rossato, M. The impact of intense exercise on semen quality. Am J Mens Health. 2016;11:654–662.Google Scholar
Gaskins, AJ, Afeiche, MC, Hauser, R, et al. Paternal physical and sedentary activities in relation to semen quality and reproductive outcomes among couples from a fertility center. Hum Reprod. 2014;29:2575–2582.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wise, LA, Cramer, DW, Hornstein, MD, Ashby, RK, Missmer, SA. Physical activity and semen quality among men attending an infertility clinic. Fertil Steril. 2011;95:1025–1030.Google Scholar
Sapra, KJ, Eisenberg, ML, Kim, S, Chen, Z, Buck Louis, GM. Choice of underwear and male fecundity in a preconception cohort of couples. Andrology. 2016;4:500–508.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wdowiak, A, Wdowiak, L, Wiktor, H. Evaluation of the effect of using mobile phones on male fertility. Ann Agric Environ Med. 2007;14:169–172.Google ScholarPubMed
Agarwal, A, Deepinder, F, Sharma, RK, Ranga, G, Li, J. Effect of cell phone usage on semen analysis in men attending infertility clinic: an observational study. Fertil Steril. 2008;89:124–128.Google Scholar
Liu, K, Li, Y, Zhang, G, et al. Association between mobile phone use and semen quality: a systemic review and meta-analysis. Andrology. 2014;2:491–501.Google Scholar
Adams, JA, Galloway, TS, Mondal, D, Esteves, SC, Mathews, F. Effect of mobile telephones on sperm quality: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Environ Int. 2014;70:106–112.Google Scholar
Avendano, C, Mata, A, Sanchez Sarmiento, CA, Doncel, GF. Use of laptop computers connected to internet through wi-fi decreases human sperm motility and increases sperm DNA fragmentation. Fertil Steril. 2012;97:39–45 e2.Google Scholar
Liu, PY, Handelsman, DJ. The present and future state of hormonal treatment for male infertility. Hum Reprod Update. 2003;9:9–23.Google Scholar
Naor, Z, Shacham, S, Harris, D, Seger, R, Reiss, N. Signal transduction of the gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) receptor: cross-talk of calcium, protein kinase C (PKC), and arachidonic acid. Cell Mol Neurobiol. 1995;15:527–544.Google Scholar
Kiesel, LA, Rody, A, Greb, RR, Szilagyi, A. Clinical use of GnRH analogues. Clin Endocrinol. 2002;56:677–687.Google Scholar
Mortimer, CH, McNeilly, AS, Fisher, RA, Murray, MA, Besser, GM. Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone therapy in hypogonadal males with hypothalamic or pituitary dysfunction. Br Med J. 1974;4:617–621.Google Scholar
Klingmuller, D, Schweikert, HU. Maintenance of spermatogenesis by intranasal administration of gonadotropin-releasing hormone in patients with hypothalamic hypogonadism. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol. 1985;61:868–872.Google Scholar
Blumenfeld, Z, Makler, A, Frisch, L, Brandes, JM. Induction of spermatogenesis and fertility in hypogonadotropic azoospermic men by intravenous pulsatile gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). Gynecol Endocrinol. 1988;2:151–164.Google Scholar
Ashkenazi, J, Bar-Hava, I, Farhi, J, et al. The role of purified follicle stimulating hormone therapy in the male partner before intracytoplasmic sperm injection. Fertil Steril. 1999;72:670–673.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foresta, C, Bettella, A, Merico, M, Garolla, A, Ferlin, A, Rossato, M. Use of recombinant human follicle-stimulating hormone in the treatment of male factor infertility. Fertil Steril. 2002;77:238–244.Google Scholar
Foresta, C, Bettella, A, Garolla, A, Ambrosini, G, Ferlin, A. Treatment of male idiopathic infertility with recombinant human follicle-stimulating hormone: a prospective, controlled, randomized clinical study. Fertil Steril. 2005;84:654–661.Google Scholar
Paradisi, R, Natali, F, Fabbri, R, Battaglia, C, Seracchioli, R, Venturoli, S. Evidence for a stimulatory role of high doses of recombinant human follicle-stimulating hormone in the treatment of male-factor infertility. Andrologia. 2014;46:1067–1072.Google Scholar
Santi, D, Granata, AR, Simoni, M. FSH treatment of male idiopathic infertility improves pregnancy rate: a meta-analysis. Endocr Connect. 2015;4:R46–R58.Google Scholar
Tatem, AJ, Beilan, J, Kovac, JR, Lipshultz, LI. Management of anabolic steroid-induced infertility: novel strategies for fertility maintenance and recovery. World J Mens Health. 2020;38:141–150.Google Scholar
Schlegel, PN, Sigman, M, Collura, B, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of infertility in men: AUA/ASRM guideline part II. Fertil Steril. 2021;115:62–69.Google Scholar
Schlegel, PN, Sigman, M, Collura, B, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of infertility in men: AUA/ASRM guideline part I. Fertil Steril. 2021;115:54–61.Google Scholar
Coviello, AD, Matsumoto, AM, Bremner, WJ, et al. Low-dose human chorionic gonadotropin maintains intratesticular testosterone in normal men with testosterone-induced gonadotropin suppression. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90:2595–2602.Google Scholar
Hsieh, TC, Pastuszak, AW, Hwang, K, Lipshultz, LI. Concomitant intramuscular human chorionic gonadotropin preserves spermatogenesis in men undergoing testosterone replacement therapy. J Urol. 2013;189:647–650.Google Scholar
Wenker, EP, Dupree, JM, Langille, GM, et al. The use of HCG-based combination therapy for recovery of spermatogenesis after testosterone use. J Sex Med. 2015;12:1334–1337.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rambhatla, A, Mills, JN, Rajfer, J. The role of estrogen modulators in male hypogonadism and infertility. Rev Urol. 2016;18:66–72.Google Scholar
Adamopoulos, DA, Nicopoulou, S, Kapolla, N, Karamertzanis, M, Andreou, E. The combination of testosterone undecanoate with tamoxifen citrate enhances the effects of each agent given independently on seminal parameters in men with idiopathic oligozoospermia. Fertil Steril. 1997;67:756–762.Google Scholar
Kotoulas, IG, Cardamakis, E, Michopoulos, J, Mitropoulos, D, Dounis, A. Tamoxifen treatment in male infertility. I. Effect on spermatozoa. Fertil Steril. 1994;61:911–914.Google Scholar
AinMelk, Y, Belisle, S, Carmel, M, Jean-Pierre, T. Tamoxifen citrate therapy in male infertility. Fertil Steril. 1987;48:113–117.Google Scholar
Vermeulen, A, Comhaire, F. Hormonal effects of an antiestrogen, tamoxifen, in normal and oligospermic men. Fertil Steril. 1978;29:320–327.Google Scholar
Kadioglu, TC, Koksal, IT, Tunc, M, Nane, I, Tellaloglu, S. Treatment of idiopathic and postvaricocelectomy oligozoospermia with oral tamoxifen citrate. BJU Int. 1999;83:646–648.Google Scholar
Buvat, J, Ardaens, K, Lemaire, A, Gauthier, A, Gasnault, JP, Buvat-Herbaut, M. Increased sperm count in 25 cases of idiopathic normogonadotropic oligospermia following treatment with tamoxifen. Fertil Steril. 1983;39:700–703.Google Scholar
Patel, DP, Brant, WO, Myers, JB, et al. The safety and efficacy of clomiphene citrate in hypoandrogenic and subfertile men. Int J Impot Res. 2015;27:221–224.Google Scholar
Wang, C, Chan, CW, Wong, KK, Yeung, KK. Comparison of the effectiveness of placebo, clomiphene citrate, mesterolone, pentoxifylline, and testosterone rebound therapy for the treatment of idiopathic oligospermia. Fertil Steril. 1983;40:358–365.Google Scholar
Ghanem, H, Shaeer, O, El-Segini, A. Combination clomiphene citrate and antioxidant therapy for idiopathic male infertility: a randomized controlled trial. Fertil Steril. 2010;93:2232–2235.Google Scholar
Roth, LW, Ryan, AR, Meacham, RB. Clomiphene citrate in the management of male infertility. Semin Reprod Med. 2013;31:245–250.Google Scholar
World Health Organization. A double-blind trial of clomiphene citrate for the treatment of idiopathic male infertility. World Health Organization. Int J Androl. 1992;15:299–307.Google Scholar
Chua, ME, Escusa, KG, Luna, S, Tapia, LC, Dofitas, B, Morales, M. Revisiting oestrogen antagonists (clomiphene or tamoxifen) as medical empiric therapy for idiopathic male infertility: a meta-analysis. Andrology. 2013;1:749–757.Google Scholar
Burnett-Bowie, SA, McKay, EA, Lee, H, Leder, BZ. Effects of aromatase inhibition on bone mineral density and bone turnover in older men with low testosterone levels. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol. 2009;94:4785–4792.Google Scholar
Raman, JD, Schlegel, PN. Aromatase inhibitors for male infertility. J Urol. 2002;167:624–629.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pavlovich, CP, King, P, Goldstein, M, Schlegel, PN. Evidence of a treatable endocrinopathy in infertile men. J Urol. 2001;165:837–841.Google Scholar
Saylam, B, Efesoy, O, Cayan, S. The effect of aromatase inhibitor letrozole on body mass index, serum hormones, and sperm parameters in infertile men. Fertil Steril. 2011;95:809–811.Google Scholar
Gregoriou, O, Bakas, P, Grigoriadis, C, Creatsa, M, Hassiakos, D, Creatsas, G. Changes in hormonal profile and seminal parameters with use of aromatase inhibitors in management of infertile men with low testosterone to estradiol ratios. Fertil Steril. 2012;98:48–51.Google Scholar
Singh, P, Singh, M, Cugati, G, Singh, AK. Hyperprolactinemia: an often missed cause of male infertility. J Hum Reprod Sci. 2011;4:102–103.Google Scholar
Fitzgerald, P, Dinan, TG. Prolactin and dopamine: what is the connection? A review article. J Psychopharmacol. 2008;22:12–19.Google Scholar
Melmed, S, Casanueva, FF, Hoffman, AR, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of hyperprolactinemia: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol. 2011;96:273–288.Google Scholar
Bayrak, A, Saadat, P, Mor, E, Chong, L, Paulson, RJ, Sokol, RZ. Pituitary imaging is indicated for the evaluation of hyperprolactinemia. Fertil Steril. 2005;84:181–185.Google Scholar
Vilar, L, Vilar, CF, Lyra, R, Freitas, MDC. Pitfalls in the diagnostic evaluation of hyperprolactinemia. Neuroendocrinology. 2019;109:7–19.Google Scholar

References

Krausz, C. Male infertility: pathogenesis and clinical diagnosis. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;25:271–285.Google Scholar
Brugh, VM, 3rd, Lipshultz, LI. Male factor infertility: evaluation and management. Med Clin North Am. 2004;88:367–385.Google Scholar
Ostrowski, KA, Holt, SK, Haynes, B, et al. Evaluation of vasectomy trends in the United States. Urology. 2018;118:76–79.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, ML, Lipshultz, LI. Estimating the number of vasectomies performed annually in the United States: data from the National Survey of Family Growth. J Urol. 2010;184:2068–2072.Google Scholar
Belker, AM, Thomas, AJ, Jr., Fuchs, EF, et al. Results of 1,469 microsurgical vasectomy reversals by the Vasovasostomy Study Group. J Urol. 1991;145:505–511.Google Scholar
Potts, JM, Pasqualotto, FF, Nelson, D, et al. Patient characteristics associated with vasectomy reversal. J Urol. 1999;161:1835–1839.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boorjian, S, Lipkin, M, Goldstein, M. The impact of obstructive interval and sperm granuloma on outcome of vasectomy reversal. J Urol. 2004;171:304–306.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fuchs, ME, Anderson, RE, Ostrowski, KA, et al. Pre-operative risk factors associated with need for vasoepididymostomy at the time of vasectomy reversal. Andrology. 2016;4:160–162.Google Scholar
Silber, SJ. Microscopic vasectomy reversal. Fertil Steril. 1977;28:1191–1202.Google Scholar
Kirby, EW, Hockenberry, M, Lipshultz, LI. Vasectomy reversal: decision making and technical innovations. Transl Androl Urol. 2017;6:753–760.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sheynkin, YR, Chen, ME, Goldstein, M. Intravasal azoospermia: a surgical dilemma. BJU Int. 2000;85:1089–1092.Google Scholar
Hagan, KF, Coffey, DS. The adverse effects of sperm during vasovasostomy. J Urol. 1977;118:269–273.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herrel, LA, Goodman, M, Goldstein, M, et al. Outcomes of microsurgical vasovasostomy for vasectomy reversal: a meta-analysis and systematic review. Urology. 2015;85:819–825.Google Scholar
Thomas, AJ, Jr. Vasoepididymostomy. Urol Clin North Am. 1987;14:527–538.Google Scholar
Schiff, J, Chan, P, Li, PS, et al. Outcome and late failures compared in 4 techniques of microsurgical vasoepididymostomy in 153 consecutive men. J Urol. 2005;174:651–615; quiz 801.Google Scholar
Chan, PT. The evolution and refinement of vasoepididymostomy techniques. Asian J Androl. 2013;15:49–55.Google Scholar
Goldstein, M, Li, PS, Matthews, GJ. Microsurgical vasovasostomy: the microdot technique of precision suture placement. J Urol. 1998;159:188–190.Google Scholar
Namekawa, T, Imamoto, T, Kato, M, et al. Vasovasostomy and vasoepididymostomy: review of the procedures, outcomes, and predictors of patency and pregnancy over the last decade. Reprod Med Biol. 2018;17:343–355.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marmar, JL. Modified vasoepididymostomy with simultaneous double needle placement, tubulotomy and tubular invagination. J Urol. 2000;163:483–486.Google Scholar
Sheynkin, YR, Li, PS, Magid, ML, et al. Comparison of absorbable and nonabsorbable sutures for microsurgical vasovasostomy in rats. Urology. 1999;53:1235–1238.Google Scholar
Matthews, GJ, Schlegel, PN, Goldstein, M. Patency following microsurgical vasoepididymostomy and vasovasostomy: temporal considerations. J Urol. 1995;154:2070–2073.Google Scholar
Jarow, JP, Espeland, MA, Lipshultz, LI. Evaluation of the azoospermic patient. J Urol. 1989;142:62–65.Google Scholar
Netto, NR, Jr., Esteves, SC, Neves, PA. Transurethral resection of partially obstructed ejaculatory ducts: seminal parameters and pregnancy outcomes according to the etiology of obstruction. J Urol. 1998;159:2048–2053.Google Scholar
Yurdakul, T, Gokce, G, Kilic, O, et al. Transurethral resection of ejaculatory ducts in the treatment of complete ejaculatory duct obstruction. Int Urol Nephrol. 2008;40:369–372.Google Scholar
Engin, G, Celtik, M, Sanli, O, et al. Comparison of transrectal ultrasonography and transrectal ultrasonography-guided seminal vesicle aspiration in the diagnosis of the ejaculatory duct obstruction. Fertil Steril. 2009;92:964–970.Google Scholar
Jarow, JP. Seminal vesicle aspiration in the management of patients with ejaculatory duct obstruction. J Urol. 1994;152:899–901.Google Scholar
Farley, S, Barnes, R. Stenosis of ejaculatory ducts treated by endoscopic resection. J Urol. 1973;109:664–666.Google Scholar
Avellino, GJ, Lipshultz, LI, Sigman, M, et al. Transurethral resection of the ejaculatory ducts: etiology of obstruction and surgical treatment options. Fertil Steril. 2019;111:427–443.Google Scholar
El-Assmy, A, El-Tholoth, H, Abouelkheir, RT, et al. Transurethral resection of ejaculatory duct in infertile men: outcome and predictors of success. Int Urol Nephrol. 2012;44:1623–1630.Google Scholar
Gorelick, JI, Goldstein, M. Loss of fertility in men with varicocele. Fertil Steril. 1993;59:613–616.Google Scholar
Damsgaard, J, Joensen, UN, Carlsen, E, et al. Varicocele is associated with impaired semen quality and reproductive hormone levels: a study of 7035 healthy young men from six European countries. Eur Urol. 2016;70:1019–1029.Google Scholar
Su, LM, Goldstein, M, Schlegel, PN. The effect of varicocelectomy on serum testosterone levels in infertile men with varicoceles. J Urol. 1995;154:1752–1755.Google Scholar
Dubin, L, Amelar, RD. Varicocelectomy as therapy in male infertility: a study of 504 cases. J Urol. 1975;113:640–641.Google Scholar
Stahl, P, Schlegel, PN. Standardization and documentation of varicocele evaluation. Curr Opin Urol. 2011;21:500–505.Google Scholar
Kohn, TP, Ohlander, SJ, Jacob, JS, et al. The effect of subclinical varicocele on pregnancy rates and semen parameters: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Curr Urol Rep. 2018;19:53.Google Scholar
Schlegel, PN, Goldstein, M. Alternate indications for varicocele repair: non-obstructive azoospermia, pain, androgen deficiency and progressive testicular dysfunction. Fertil Steril. 2011;96:1288–1293.Google Scholar
Chehval, MJ, Purcell, MH. Deterioration of semen parameters over time in men with untreated varicocele: evidence of progressive testicular damage. Fertil Steril. 1992;57:174–177.Google Scholar
Światłowski, Ł, Pyra, K, Kuczyńska, M, et al. Selecting patients for embolization of varicoceles based on ultrasonography. J Ultrason. 2018;18:90–95.Google Scholar
Tu, D, Glassberg, KI. Laparoscopic varicocelectomy. BJU Int. 2010;106:1094–1104.Google Scholar
Schauer, I, Madersbacher, S, Jost, R, et al. The impact of varicocelectomy on sperm parameters: a meta-analysis. J Urol. 2012;187:1540–1547.Google Scholar
Kirby, EW, Wiener, LE, Rajanahally, S, et al. Undergoing varicocele repair before assisted reproduction improves pregnancy rate and live birth rate in azoospermic and oligospermic men with a varicocele: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Fertil Steril. 2016;106:1338–1343.Google Scholar
van Wely, M, Barbey, N, Meissner, A, et al. Live birth rates after MESA or TESE in men with obstructive azoospermia: is there a difference? Hum Reprod. 2015;30:761–766.Google Scholar
Esteves, SC, Miyaoka, R, Orosz, JE, et al. An update on sperm retrieval techniques for azoospermic males. Clinics (Sao Paulo). 2013;68(Suppl. 1):99–110.Google Scholar
Ashraf, MC, Singh, S, Raj, D, et al. Micro-dissection testicular sperm extraction as an alternative for sperm acquisition in the most difficult cases of azoospermia: technique and preliminary results in India. J Hum Reprod Sci. 2013;6:111–123.Google Scholar
Bernie, AM, Mata, DA, Ramasamy, R, et al. Comparison of microdissection testicular sperm extraction, conventional testicular sperm extraction, and testicular sperm aspiration for nonobstructive azoospermia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Fertil Steril. 2015;104:1099–1103.e3.Google Scholar
Cayan, S, Shavakhabov, S, Kadioğlu, A. Treatment of palpable varicocele in infertile men: a meta-analysis to define the best technique. J Androl. 2009;30:33–40.Google Scholar

References

Irvine, DS. Epidemiology and aetiology of male infertility. Hum Reprod. 1998;13(Suppl. 1):33–44.Google Scholar
Redmon, JB, Carey, P Pryor, JL. Varicocele: the most common cause of male factor infertility? Hum Reprod Update. 2002;8(1):53–58.Google Scholar
Kohn, TP, Kohn, JR, Pastuszak, AW. Varicocelectomy before assisted reproductive technology: are outcomes improved? Fertil Steril. 2017;108(3):385–391.Google Scholar
World Health Organization. The influence of varicocele on parameters of fertility in a large group of men presenting to infertility clinics. World Health Organization. Fertil Steril. 1992;57(6):1289–1293.Google Scholar
Pathak, P, Chandrashekar, A, Hakky, TS, et al. Varicocele management in the era of in vitro fertilization/intracytoplasmic sperm injection. Asian J Androl. 2016;18(3):343–348.Google Scholar
Goldstein, M, Eid, JF. Elevation of intratesticular and scrotal skin surface temperature in men with varicocele. J Urol. 1989;142(3):743–745.Google Scholar
Ozbek, E, Yurekli, M, Soylu, A, et al. The role of adrenomedullin in varicocele and impotence. BJU Int. 2000;86(6):694–698.Google Scholar
Hendin, BN, Kolettis, PN, Sharma, RK, et al. Varicocele is associated with elevated spermatozoal reactive oxygen species production and diminished seminal plasma antioxidant capacity. J Urol. 1999;161(6):1831–1834.Google Scholar
Gilbert, BR, Witkin, SS, Goldstein, M. Correlation of sperm-bound immunoglobulins with impaired semen analysis in infertile men with varicoceles. Fertil Steril. 1989;52(3):469–473.Google Scholar
Abdel-Meguid, TA, Farsi, HM, Al-Sayyad, A, et al. Effects of varicocele on serum testosterone and changes of testosterone after varicocelectomy: a prospective controlled study. Urology. 2014;84(5):1081–1087.Google Scholar
Mieusset, R, Bujan, L. Testicular heating and its possible contributions to male infertility: a review. Int J Androl. 1995;18(4):169–184.Google Scholar
Freire Gde, C. Surgery or embolization for varicoceles in subfertile men. Sao Paulo Med J. 2013;131(1):67.Google Scholar
Kroese, AC, de Lange, NM, Collins, J, et al. Surgery or embolization for varicoceles in subfertile men. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;10:CD000479.Google Scholar
Breznik, R, Vlaisavljevic, V, Borko, E. Treatment of varicocele and male fertility. Arch Androl. 1993;30(3):157–160.Google Scholar
Chen, SS, Chen, LK. Risk factors for progressive deterioration of semen quality in patients with varicocele. Urology. 2012;79(1):128–132.Google Scholar
Samplaski, MK, Lo, KC, Grober, ED, et al. Varicocelectomy to “upgrade” semen quality to allow couples to use less invasive forms of assisted reproductive technology. Fertil Steril. 2017;108(4):609–612.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baazeem, A, Belzile, E, Ciampi, A, et al. Varicocele and male factor infertility treatment: a new meta-analysis and review of the role of varicocele repair. Eur Urol. 2011;60(4):796–808.Google Scholar
Zini, A, Azhar, R, Baazeem, A, et al. Effect of microsurgical varicocelectomy on human sperm chromatin and DNA integrity: a prospective trial. Int J Androl. 2011;34(1):14–19.Google Scholar
Smit, M, Romijn, JC, Wildhagen, MF, et al. Decreased sperm DNA fragmentation after surgical varicocelectomy is associated with increased pregnancy rate. J Urol. 2013;189(1 Suppl):S146–S150.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, F, Yamaguchi, K, Okada, K, et al. Significant improvement of sperm DNA quality after microsurgical repair of varicocele. Syst Biol Reprod Med. 2012;58(5):274–277.Google Scholar
Wang, YJ, Zhang, RQ, Lin, YJ, et al. Relationship between varicocele and sperm DNA damage and the effect of varicocele repair: a meta-analysis. Reprod Biomed Online. 2012;25(3):307–314.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, SS, Huang, WJ, Chang, LS, et al. Attenuation of oxidative stress after varicocelectomy in subfertile patients with varicocele. J Urol. 2008;179(2):639–642.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cayan, S, Erdemir, F, Ozbey, I, et al. Can varicocelectomy significantly change the way couples use assisted reproductive technologies? J Urol. 2002;167(4):1749–1752.Google Scholar
Turgut, H. The effect of varicocelectomy on the pregnancy rate in patients with severe oligospermia. Niger J Clin Pract. 2020;23(12):1744–1747.Google Scholar
Kamal, KM, Jarvi, K, Zini, A. Microsurgical varicocelectomy in the era of assisted reproductive technology: influence of initial semen quality on pregnancy rates. Fertil Steril. 2001;75(5):1013–1016.Google Scholar
Grober, ED, Chan, PT, Zini, A, et al. Microsurgical treatment of persistent or recurrent varicocele. Fertil Steril. 2004;82(3):718–722.Google Scholar
Marmar, JL, Corson, SL, Batzer, FR, et al. Insemination data on men with varicoceles. Fertil Steril. 1992;57(5):1084–1090.Google Scholar
Daitch, JA, Bedaiwy, MA, Pasqualotto, EB, et al. Varicocelectomy improves intrauterine insemination success rates in men with varicocele. J Urol. 2001;165(5):1510–1513.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boman, JM, Libman, J, Zini, A. Microsurgical varicocelectomy for isolated asthenospermia. J Urol. 2008;180(5):2129–2132.Google Scholar
Kirby, EW, Wiener, LE, Rajanahally, S, et al. Undergoing varicocele repair before assisted reproduction improves pregnancy rate and live birth rate in azoospermic and oligospermic men with a varicocele: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Fertil Steril. 2016;106(6):1338–1343.Google Scholar
Ashkenazi, J, Dicker, D, Feldberg, D, et al. The impact of spermatic vein ligation on the male factor in in vitro fertilization-embryo transfer and its relation to testosterone levels before and after operation. Fertil Steril. 1989;51(3):471–474.Google Scholar
Esteves, SC, Oliveira, FV, Bertolla, RP. Clinical outcome of intracytoplasmic sperm injection in infertile men with treated and untreated clinical varicocele. J Urol. 2010;184(4):1442–1446.Google Scholar
Gokce, A, Demirtas, A, Ozturk, A, et al. Association of left varicocoele with height, body mass index and sperm counts in infertile men. Andrology. 2013;1(1):116–119.Google Scholar
Pasqualotto, FF, Braga, DP, Figueira, RC, et al. Varicocelectomy does not impact pregnancy outcomes following intracytoplasmic sperm injection procedures. J Androl. 2012;33(2):239–243.Google Scholar
Kim, ED, Leibman, BB, Grinblat, DM, et al. Varicocele repair improves semen parameters in azoospermic men with spermatogenic failure. J Urol. 1999;162(3 Pt 1):737–740.Google Scholar
Matthews, GJ, Matthews, ED, Goldstein, M. Induction of spermatogenesis and achievement of pregnancy after microsurgical varicocelectomy in men with azoospermia and severe oligoasthenospermia. Fertil Steril. 1998;70(1):71–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schoysman, R, Vanderzwalmen, P, Nijs, M, et al. Pregnancy after fertilisation with human testicular spermatozoa. Lancet. 1993;342(8881):1237.Google Scholar
Schlegel, PN. Testicular sperm extraction: microdissection improves sperm yield with minimal tissue excision. Hum Reprod. 1999;14(1):131–135.Google Scholar
Zampieri, N, Bosaro, L, Costantini, C, et al. Relationship between testicular sperm extraction and varicocelectomy in patients with varicocele and nonobstructive azoospermia. Urology. 2013;82(1):74–77.Google Scholar
Dubin, JM, Greer, AB, Kohn, TP, et al. Men with severe oligospermia appear to benefit from varicocele repair: a cost-effectiveness analysis of assisted reproductive technology. Urology. 2018;111:99–103.Google Scholar
Esteves, SC, Miyaoka, R, Roque, M, et al. Outcome of varicocele repair in men with nonobstructive azoospermia: systematic review and meta-analysis. Asian J Androl. 2016;18(2):246–253.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Inci, K, Hascicek, M, Kara, O, et al. Sperm retrieval and intracytoplasmic sperm injection in men with nonobstructive azoospermia, and treated and untreated varicocele. J Urol. 2009. 182(4):1500–1505.Google Scholar
Haydardedeoglu, B, Turunc, T, Kilicdag, EB, et al. The effect of prior varicocelectomy in patients with nonobstructive azoospermia on intracytoplasmic sperm injection outcomes: a retrospective pilot study. Urology. 2010;75(1):83–86.Google Scholar
Salonia, A, Bettocchi, C, Boeri, L, et al. European Association of Urology Guidelines on Sexual and Reproductive Health – 2021 update: male sexual dysfunction. Eur Urol. 2021;80(3):333–357.Google Scholar
Schlegel, PN, Sigman, M, Collura, B, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of infertility in men: AUA/ASRM guideline part II. Fertil Steril. 2021;115(1):62–69.Google Scholar
Kohn, TP, Ohlander, SJ, Jacob, JS, et al. The effect of subclinical varicocele on pregnancy rates and semen parameters: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Curr Urol Rep. 2018;19(7):53.Google Scholar
Al Bakri, A, Lo, K, Grober, E, et al. Time for improvement in semen parameters after varicocelectomy. J Urol. 2012;187(1):227–231.Google Scholar
Abdel-Meguid, TA. Predictors of sperm recovery and azoospermia relapse in men with nonobstructive azoospermia after varicocele repair. J Urol. 2012;187(1):222–226.Google Scholar
Meng, MV, Greene, KL, Turek, PJ. Surgery or assisted reproduction? A decision analysis of treatment costs in male infertility. J Urol. 2005;174(5):1926–1931; discussion 1931.Google Scholar
Lee, R, Li, PS, Goldstein, M, et al. A decision analysis of treatments for nonobstructive azoospermia associated with varicocele. Fertil Steril. 2009;92(1):188–196.Google Scholar

References

Mascarenhas, MN, Flaxman, SR, Boerma, T, Vanderpoel, S, Stevens, GA. National, regional, and global trends in infertility prevalence since 1990: a systematic analysis of 277 health surveys. PLoS Med. 2012;9:e1001356.Google Scholar
Brugh, VM, Lipshultz, LI. Male factor infertility: evaluation and management. Med Clin North Am. 2004;88:367–385.Google Scholar
Plaseska-Karanfilska, D, Noveski, P, Plaseski, T, Maleva, I, Madjunkova, S, Moneva, Z. Genetic causes of male infertility. Balkan J Med Genet. 2012;15:31–34.Google Scholar
Ferlin, A, Raicu, F, Gatta, V, Zuccarello, D, Palka, G, Foresta, C. Male infertility: role of genetic background. Reprod Biomed Online. 2007;14:734–745.Google Scholar
Turriff, A, Macnamara, E, Levy, HP, Biesecker, B. The impact of living with Klinefelter syndrome: a qualitative exploration of adolescents and adults. J Genet Couns. 2017;26:728–737.Google Scholar
Spaziani, M, Radicioni, AF. Metabolic and cardiovascular risk factors in Klinefelter syndrome. Am J Med Genet C Semin Med Genet. 2020;184:334–343.Google Scholar
O’Flynn O’Brien, KL, Varghese, AC, Agarwal, A. The genetic causes of male factor infertility: a review. Fertil Steril. 2010;93:1–12.Google Scholar
Practice Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine. Diagnostic evaluation of the infertile male: a committee opinion. Fertil Steril. 2015;103:e18–25.Google Scholar
Practice Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine. Management of nonobstructive azoospermia: a committee opinion. Fertil Steril. 2018;110:1239–1245.Google Scholar
Salonia, A, Bettocchi, C, Carvalho, J, et al. Guidelines on sexual and reproductive health - 2021 update: Male sexual dysfunction. Eur Urol. 2021;80(3):333–357.Google Scholar
Jarow, J, Sigman, M, Kolettis, PN, et al. The optimal evaluation of the infertile male: AUA best practice statement. In: AUAEa, ed. Research. American Urological Association, Inc.; 2010:1–38.Google Scholar
Esteves, SC, Miyaoka, R, Agarwal, A. An update on the clinical assessment of the infertile male. [corrected]. Clinics (Sao Paulo). 2011;66:691–700.Google Scholar
Hamada, AJ, Esteves, SC, Agarwal, A. A comprehensive review of genetics and genetic testing in azoospermia. Clinics (Sao Paulo). 2013;68(Suppl. 1):39–60.Google Scholar
Kohn, TP, Kohn, JR, Owen, RC, Coward, RM. The prevalence of Y-chromosome microdeletions in oligozoospermic men: a systematic review and meta-analysis of European and North American studies. Eur Urol. 2019;76:626–636.Google Scholar
Bates, SE. Classical cytogenetics: karyotyping techniques. Methods Mol Biol. 2011;767:177–190.Google Scholar
Thirumavalavan, N, Gabrielsen, JS, Lamb, DJ. Where are we going with gene screening for male infertility? Fertil Steril. 2019;111:842–850.Google Scholar
Donker, RB, Vloeberghs, V, Groen, H, Tournaye, H, van Ravenswaaij-Arts, CMA, Land, JA. Chromosomal abnormalities in 1663 infertile men with azoospermia: the clinical consequences. Hum Reprod. 2017;32:2574–2580.Google Scholar
ElBardisi, H, Majzoub, A. Klinefelter syndrome. In: Aziz, N, Agarwal, A, eds. The Diagnosis and Treatment of Male Infertility. Springer; 2017:133–150.Google Scholar
Stahl, PJ, Schlegel, PN. Genetic evaluation of the azoospermic or severely oligozoospermic male. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol. 2012;24:221–228.Google Scholar
Hotaling, J, Carrell, DT. Clinical genetic testing for male factor infertility: current applications and future directions. Andrology. 2014;2:339–350.Google Scholar
Schiff, JD, Palermo, GD, Veeck, LL, Goldstein, M, Rosenwaks, Z, Schlegel, PN. Success of testicular sperm extraction [corrected] and intracytoplasmic sperm injection in men with Klinefelter syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90:6263–6267.Google Scholar
Majzoub, A, Arafa, M, Al Said, S, et al. Outcome of testicular sperm extraction in nonmosaic Klinefelter syndrome patients: what is the best approach? Andrologia. 2016;48:171–176.Google Scholar
Arshad, MA, Majzoub, A, Esteves, SC. Predictors of surgical sperm retrieval in non-obstructive azoospermia: summary of current literature. Int Urol Nephrol. 2020;52:2015–2038.Google Scholar
Okada, H, Goda, K, Muto, S, Maruyama, O, Koshida, M, Horie, S. Four pregnancies in nonmosaic Klinefelter’s syndrome using cryopreserved-thawed testicular spermatozoa. Fertil Steril. 2005;84:1508.Google Scholar
Bourne, H, Stern, K, Clarke, G, Pertile, M, Speirs, A, Baker, HW. Delivery of normal twins following the intracytoplasmic injection of spermatozoa from a patient with 47,XXY Klinefelter’s syndrome. Hum Reprod. 1997;12:2447–2450.Google Scholar
Vicdan, K, Akarsu, C, Vicdan, A, et al. Birth of a healthy boy using fresh testicular sperm in a patient with Klinefelter syndrome combined with Kartagener syndrome. Fertil Steril. 2011;96:577–579.Google Scholar
Ferhi, K, Avakian, R, Griveau, JF, Guille, F. Age as only predictive factor for successful sperm recovery in patients with Klinefelter’s syndrome. Andrologia. 2009;41:84–87.Google Scholar
Okada, H, Goda, K, Yamamoto, Y, et al. Age as a limiting factor for successful sperm retrieval in patients with nonmosaic Klinefelter’s syndrome. Fertil Steril. 2005;84:1662–1664.Google Scholar
de la Chapelle, A. The etiology of maleness in XX men. Hum Genet. 1981;58:105–116.Google Scholar
Rajender, S, Rajani, V, Gupta, NJ, Chakravarty, B, Singh, L, Thangaraj, K. SRY-negative 46,XX male with normal genitals, complete masculinization and infertility. Mol Hum Reprod. 2006;12:341–346.Google Scholar
Dauwerse, JG, Hansson, KB, Brouwers, AA, Peters, DJ, Breuning, MH. An XX male with the sex-determining region Y gene inserted in the long arm of chromosome 16. Fertil Steril. 2006;86:463 e1–5.Google Scholar
Vorona, E, Zitzmann, M, Gromoll, J, Schuring, AN, Nieschlag, E. Clinical, endocrinological, and epigenetic features of the 46,XX male syndrome, compared with 47,XXY Klinefelter patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007;92:3458–3465.Google Scholar
Majzoub, A, Arafa, M, Starks, C, Elbardisi, H, Al Said, S, Sabanegh, E. 46 XX karyotype during male fertility evaluation; case series and literature review. Asian J Androl. 2017;19:168–172.Google Scholar
Peschka, B, Leygraaf, J, Van der Ven, K, et al. Type and frequency of chromosome aberrations in 781 couples undergoing intracytoplasmic sperm injection. Hum Reprod. 1999;14:2257–2263.Google Scholar
Mau-Holzmann, UA. Somatic chromosomal abnormalities in infertile men and women. Cytogenet Genome Res. 2005;111:317–336.Google Scholar
Morin, SJ, Eccles, J, Iturriaga, A, Zimmerman, RS. Translocations, inversions and other chromosome rearrangements. Fertil Steril. 2017;107:19–26.Google Scholar
Oliver-Bonet, M, Ko, E, Martin, RH. Male infertility in reciprocal translocation carriers: the sex body affair. Cytogenet Genome Res. 2005;111:343–346.Google Scholar
Suzumori, N, Sugiura-Ogasawara, M. Genetic factors as a cause of miscarriage. Curr Med Chem. 2010;17:3431–3437.Google Scholar
Güney, AI, Javadova, D, Kırac, D, et al. Detection of Y chromosome microdeletions and mitochondrial DNA mutations in male infertility patients. Genet Mol Res. 2012;11:1039–1048.Google Scholar
Noordam, MJ, Repping, S. The human Y chromosome: a masculine chromosome. Curr Opin Genet Dev. 2006;16:225–232.Google Scholar
Kaluarachchi, NP, Randunu, MH, Jainulabdeen, M, Thavarajah, A, Padeniya, P, Galhena, P. Complex Y chromosome anomalies in an infertile male. JBRA Assist Reprod. 2020;24:510–512.Google Scholar
Nuti, F, Krausz, C. Gene polymorphisms/mutations relevant to abnormal spermatogenesis. Reprod Biomed Online. 2008;16:504–513.Google Scholar
Krausz, C, Casamonti, E. Spermatogenic failure and the Y chromosome. Hum Genet. 2017;136:637–655.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Esteves, SC. Clinical management of infertile men with nonobstructive azoospermia. Asian J Androl. 2015;17:459–470.Google Scholar
Gunes, S, Esteves, SC. Role of genetics and epigenetics in male infertility. Andrologia. 2020:e13586.Google Scholar
Goncalves, C, Cunha, M, Rocha, E, et al. Y-chromosome microdeletions in nonobstructive azoospermia and severe oligozoospermia. Asian J Androl. 2017;19:338–345.Google Scholar
Stahl, PJ, Masson, P, Mielnik, A, Marean, MB, Schlegel, PN, Paduch, DA. A decade of experience emphasizes that testing for Y microdeletions is essential in American men with azoospermia and severe oligozoospermia. Fertil Steril. 2010;94:1753–1756.Google Scholar
Park, SH, Lee, HS, Choe, JH, Lee, JS, Seo, JT. Success rate of microsurgical multiple testicular sperm extraction and sperm presence in the ejaculate in Korean men with Y chromosome microdeletions. Korean J Urol. 2013;54:536–540.Google Scholar
Fraietta, R, Zylberstejn, DS, Esteves, SC. Hypogonadotropic hypogonadism revisited. Clinics (Sao Paulo). 2013;68(Suppl. 1):81–88.Google Scholar
Sizar, O, Schwartz, J. Hypogonadism. In: StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing Copyright © 2020, StatPearls Publishing LLC.; 2020.Google Scholar
Festa, A, Umano, GR, Miraglia Del Giudice, E, Grandone, A. Genetic evaluation of patients with delayed puberty and congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism: is it worthy of consideration? Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2020;11:253.Google Scholar
Sonne, J, Lopez-Ojeda, W. Kallmann syndrome. In: StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing Copyright © 2020, StatPearls Publishing LLC.; 2020.Google Scholar
Casarini, L, Crépieux, P, Reiter, E, et al. FSH for the treatment of male infertility. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21:2270.Google Scholar
Hiort, O. Clinical and molecular aspects of androgen insensitivity. Endocr Dev. 2013;24:33–40.Google Scholar
Xiao, F, Lan, A, Lin, Z, et al. Impact of CAG repeat length in the androgen receptor gene on male infertility: a meta-analysis. Reprod Biomed Online. 2016;33:39–49.Google Scholar
Singh, S, Ilyayeva, S. Androgen insensitivity syndrome. In: StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing Copyright © 2020, StatPearls Publishing LLC.; 2020.Google Scholar
Castellani, C, Linnane, B, Pranke, I, Cresta, F, Sermet-Gaudelus, I, Peckham, D. Cystic fibrosis diagnosis in newborns, children, and adults. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2019;40:701–714.Google Scholar
Quinzii, C, Castellani, C. The cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator gene and male infertility. J Endocrinol Invest. 2000;23:684–689.Google Scholar
Mak, V, Zielenski, J, Tsui, LC, et al. Proportion of cystic fibrosis gene mutations not detected by routine testing in men with obstructive azoospermia. JAMA. 1999;281:2217–2224.Google Scholar
Kanavakis, E, Tzetis, M, Antoniadi, T, Pistofidis, G, Milligos, S, Kattamis, C. Cystic fibrosis mutation screening in CBAVD patients and men with obstructive azoospermia or severe oligozoospermia. Mol Hum Reprod. 1998;4:333–337.Google Scholar
Giuliani, R, Antonucci, I, Torrente, I, Grammatico, P, Palka, G, Stuppia, L. Identification of the second CFTR mutation in patients with congenital bilateral absence of vas deferens undergoing ART protocols. Asian J Androl. 2010;12:819–826.Google Scholar
Esteves, SC, Lee, W, Benjamin, DJ, Seol, B, Verza, S, Jr., Agarwal, A. Reproductive potential of men with obstructive azoospermia undergoing percutaneous sperm retrieval and intracytoplasmic sperm injection according to the cause of obstruction. J Urol. 2013;189:232–237.Google Scholar
Miyaoka, R, Esteves, SC. Predictive factors for sperm retrieval and sperm injection outcomes in obstructive azoospermia: do etiology, retrieval techniques and gamete source play a role? Clinics (Sao Paulo). 2013;68(Suppl. 1):111–119.Google Scholar
Salwan, A, Abdelrahman, A. Congenital absence of vas deferens and ectopic kidney. Int J Surg Case Rep. 2017;34:90–92.Google Scholar
Kolettis, PN, Sandlow, JI. Clinical and genetic features of patients with congenital unilateral absence of the vas deferens. Urology. 2002;60:1073–1076.Google Scholar
Mickle, J, Milunsky, A, Amos, JA, Oates, RD. Congenital unilateral absence of the vas deferens: a heterogeneous disorder with two distinct subpopulations based upon aetiology and mutational status of the cystic fibrosis gene. Hum Reprod. 1995;10:1728–1735.Google Scholar
Grover, MM, Jenkins, TG. Transgenerational epigenetics: a window into paternal health influences on offspring. Urol Clin North Am. 2020;47:219–225.Google Scholar
Sharma, P, Ghanghas, P, Kaushal, N, Kaur, J, Kaur, P. Epigenetics and oxidative stress: a twin-edged sword in spermatogenesis. Andrologia. 2019;51:e13432.Google Scholar
Spadafora, C. Transgenerational epigenetic reprogramming of early embryos: a mechanistic model. Environ Epigenet. 2020;6:dvaa009.Google Scholar
Cioppi, F, Casamonti, E, Krausz, C. Age-dependent de novo mutations during spermatogenesis and their consequences. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2019;1166:29–46.Google Scholar
Phillips, N, Taylor, L, Bachmann, G. Maternal, infant and childhood risks associated with advanced paternal age: The need for comprehensive counseling for men. Maturitas. 2019;125:81–84.Google Scholar
Menezo, Y, Dale, B, Elder, K. The negative impact of the environment on methylation/epigenetic marking in gametes and embryos: a plea for action to protect the fertility of future generations. Mol Reprod Dev. 2019;86:1273–1282.Google Scholar
Darbandi, M, Darbandi, S, Agarwal, A, et al. Reactive oxygen species-induced alterations in H19-Igf2 methylation patterns, seminal plasma metabolites, and semen quality. J Assist Reprod Genet. 2019;36:241–253.Google Scholar
Santana, VP, Miranda-Furtado, CL, Pedroso, DCC, et al. The relationship among sperm global DNA methylation, telomere length, and DNA fragmentation in varicocele: a cross-sectional study of 20 cases. Syst Biol Reprod Med. 2019;65:95–104.Google Scholar
Poorang, S, Abdollahi, S, Anvar, Z, et al. The impact of methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) sperm methylation and variants on semen parameters and the chance of recurrent pregnancy loss in the couple. Clin Lab. 2018;64:1121–1128.Google Scholar
Yu, M, Du, G, Xu, Q, et al. Integrated analysis of DNA methylome and transcriptome identified CREB5 as a novel risk gene contributing to recurrent pregnancy loss. EBioMedicine. 2018;35:334–344.Google Scholar
Patel, B, Parets, S, Akana, M, et al. Comprehensive genetic testing for female and male infertility using next-generation sequencing. J Assist Reprod Genet. 2018;35:1489–1496.Google Scholar
Yuen, RK, Merkoulovitch, A, MacDonald, JR, et al. Development of a high-resolution Y-chromosome microarray for improved male infertility diagnosis. Fertil Steril. 2014;101:1079–1085.e3.Google Scholar
Jorgez, CJ, Weedin, JW, Sahin, A, et al. Aberrations in pseudoautosomal regions (PARs) found in infertile men with Y-chromosome microdeletions. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96:E674–E679.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sawyer, SL, Mukherjee, N, Pakstis, AJ, et al. Linkage disequilibrium patterns vary substantially among populations. Eur J Hum Genet. 2005;13:677–686.Google Scholar

References

Simpson, LA, et al. The health and life priorities of individuals with spinal cord injury: a systematic review. J Neurotrauma. 2012;29(8):1548–1555.Google Scholar
Biering-Sørensen, F, Sønksen, J. Penile erection in men with spinal cord or cauda equina lesions. Semin Neurol. 1992;12(2):98–105.Google Scholar
Biering-Sørensen, F, Sønksen, J. Sexual function in spinal cord lesioned men. Spinal Cord. 2001;39(9):455–470.Google Scholar
Ohl, DA, et al. Efficacy and safety of sildenafil in men with sexual dysfunction and spinal cord injury. Sex Med Rev. 2017;5(4):521–528.Google Scholar
Sinha, V, et al. Reproductive health of men with spinal cord injury. Top Spinal Cord Inj Rehabil. 2017;23(1):31–41.Google Scholar
Chochina, L, et al. Intracavernous injections in spinal cord injured men with erectile dysfunction, a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sex Med Rev. 2016;4(3):257–269.Google Scholar
Zermann, DH, et al. Penile prosthetic surgery in neurologically impaired patients: long-term followup. J Urol. 2006;175(3 Pt 1):1041–1044; discussion 1044.Google Scholar
Wieder, JA, et al. Anesthetic block of the dorsal penile nerve inhibits vibratory-induced ejaculation in men with spinal cord injuries. Urology. 2000;55(6):915–917.Google Scholar
Brackett, NL, et al. Treatment for ejaculatory dysfunction in men with spinal cord injury: an 18-year single center experience. J Urol. 2010;183(6):2304–2308.Google Scholar
Anderson, KD, et al. The impact of spinal cord injury on sexual function: concerns of the general population. Spinal Cord. 2007;45(5):328–337.Google Scholar
Kathiresan, AS, et al. Semen quality in ejaculates produced by masturbation in men with spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord. 2012;50(12):891–894.Google Scholar
Brindley, GS. Reflex ejaculation under vibratory stimulation in paraplegic men. Paraplegia. 1981;19(5):299–302.Google Scholar
Brackett, NL, et al. An analysis of 653 trials of penile vibratory stimulation in men with spinal cord injury. J Urol. 1998;159(6):1931–1934.Google Scholar
Castle, SM, et al. Safety and efficacy of a new device for inducing ejaculation in men with spinal cord injuries. Spinal Cord. 2014;52(Suppl. 2):S27–S29.Google Scholar
Sønksen, J, Biering-Sørensen, F, Kristensen, JK. Ejaculation induced by penile vibratory stimulation in men with spinal cord injuries: the importance of the vibratory amplitude. Paraplegia. 1994;32(10):651–660.Google Scholar
Bird, VG, et al. Reflexes and somatic responses as predictors of ejaculation by penile vibratory stimulation in men with spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord. 2001;39(10):514–519.Google Scholar
Krassioukov, A, et al. A systematic review of the management of autonomic dysreflexia after spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2009;90(4):682–695.Google Scholar
Horne, HW, Paull, DP, Munro, D. Fertility studies in the human male with traumatic injuries of the spinal cord and cauda equina. N Engl J Med. 1948;239(25):959–961.Google Scholar
Halstead, LS, VerVoort, S, Seager, SW. Rectal probe electrostimulation in the treatment of anejaculatory spinal cord injured men. Paraplegia. 1987;25(2):120–129.Google Scholar
Denil, J, et al. Treatment of anejaculation with electroejaculation. Acta Urol Belg. 1992;60(3):15–25.Google Scholar
Heruti, RJ, et al. Treatment of male infertility due to spinal cord injury using rectal probe electroejaculation: the Israeli experience. Spinal Cord. 2001;39(3):168–175.Google Scholar
McGuire, C, et al. Electroejaculatory stimulation for male infertility secondary to spinal cord injury: the Irish experience in National Rehabilitation Hospital. Urology. 2011;77(1):83–87.Google Scholar
Ohl, DA, et al. Electroejaculation and assisted reproductive technologies in the treatment of anejaculatory infertility. Fertil Steril. 2001;76(6):1249–1255.Google Scholar
Soeterik, TF, et al. Electroejaculation in patients with spinal cord injuries: a 21-year, single-center experience. Int J Urol. 2017;24(2):157–161.Google Scholar
Ibrahim, E, et al. Evaluation of a re-engineered device for penile vibratory stimulation in men with spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord. 2021;59(2):151–158.Google Scholar
Fode, M, Ohl, DA, Sønksen, J. A step-wise approach to sperm retrieval in men with neurogenic anejaculation. Nat Rev Urol. 2015;12(11):607–616.Google Scholar
Jensen, CF, et al. Multiple needle-pass percutaneous testicular sperm aspiration as first-line treatment in azoospermic men. Andrology. 2016;4(2):257–262.Google Scholar
Sønksen, J, et al. Vibratory ejaculation in 140 spinal cord injured men and home insemination of their partners. Spinal Cord. 2012;50(1):63–66.Google Scholar
Salonia, A, Carvalho, JP, Corona, G, et al. EAU Guidelines on Sexual and Reproductive Health. 2020. https://uroweb.org/guideline/sexual-and-reproductive-health/#3. Accessed November 1, 2022.Google Scholar
Barbonetti, A, et al. Correlates of low testosterone in men with chronic spinal cord injury. Andrology. 2014;2(5):721–728.Google Scholar
Behnaz, M, et al. Prevalence of androgen deficiency in chronic spinal cord injury patients suffering from erectile dysfunction. Spinal Cord. 2017;55(12):1061–1065.Google Scholar
Sullivan, SD, et al. Prevalence and etiology of hypogonadism in young men with chronic spinal cord injury: a cross-sectional analysis from two university-based rehabilitation centers. PM R. 2017;9(8):751–760.Google Scholar
Lim, CAR, et al. Lifestyle modifications and pharmacological approaches to improve sexual function and satisfaction in men with spinal cord injury: a narrative review. Spinal Cord. 2020;58(4):391–401.Google Scholar
Bauman, WA, et al. Lean tissue mass and energy expenditure are retained in hypogonadal men with spinal cord injury after discontinuation of testosterone replacement therapy. J Spinal Cord Med. 2015;38(1):38–47.Google Scholar

References

Zegers-Hochschild, F, Adamson, GD, de Mouzon, J, et al. International Committee for Monitoring Assisted Reproductive Technology (ICMART) and the World Health Organization (WHO) revised glossary of ART terminology. Fertility and Sterility. 2009;92(5):1520–1524.Google Scholar
Anderheim, L, Holter, H, Bergh, C, Moller, A. Does psychological stress affect the outcome of in vitro fertilization?. Hum Reprod. 2005;20(10):2969–2975.Google Scholar
Klosky, J, Simmons, JL, Russell, KM, et al. Fertility as a priority among at-risk adolescent males newly diagnosed with cancer and their parents. Support Care Cancer. 2015;23(2):333–341.Google Scholar
Barnett, M, McDonnell, G, DeRosa, A, et al. Psychosocial outcomes and interventions among cancer survivors diagnosed during adolescence and young adulthood (AYA): a systematic review. J Cancer Surviv. 2016;10(5):814–831.Google Scholar
Oktay, K, Harvey, B, Partridge, A, et al. Fertility preservation in patients with cancer: ASCO clinical practice guideline update. J Clin Oncol. 2018;36(19):1994–2001.Google Scholar
Garcia, MM. Genital gender-affirming surgery: patient care, decision making, and surgery options. In: McAninch, JW, Lue, TF, eds. Smith & Tanagho’s General Urology. 19th ed. McGraw-Hill; 2020:747–768.Google Scholar
Coleman, E, Bockting, W, Botzer, M, et al. Standards of care for the health of transsexual, transgender, and gender-nonconforming people, version 7. Int J Transgend. 2012;13(4):165–232.Google Scholar
Hembree, W, Cohen-Kettenis, PT, Gooren, L, et al. Endocrine treatment of gender-dysphoric/gender-incongruent persons: an Endocrine Society* clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2017;102(11):3869–3903.Google Scholar
Close, A, Dreyzin, A, Miller, KD, Seynnaeve, BKN, Rapkin, LB. Adolescent and young adult oncology – past, present, and future. CA Cancer J Clin. 2019;69(6):485–496.Google Scholar
National Cancer Institute. SEER Cancer Statistics Review 1975–2017. January 6, 2021. https://seer.cancer.gov/csr/1975_2017/browse_csr.php?sectionSEL=2&pageSEL=sect_02_table.07. Accessed November 1, 2022.Google Scholar
Siegel, R, Miller, KD, Jemal, A. Colorectal cancer mortality rates in adults aged 20 to 54 years in the United States, 1970–2014. JAMA. 2017;318(6): 572–574.Google Scholar
Moss, J, Choi, AW, Keeter, MKF, Brannigan, RE. Male adolescent fertility preservation. Fertil Steril. 2016;105(2):267–273.Google Scholar
Schover, L, Brey, K, Lichtin, A, Lipshultz, LI, Jeha, S. Knowledge and experience regarding cancer, infertility, and sperm banking in younger male survivors. J Clin Oncol. 2002;20(7):1880–1889.Google Scholar
Flink, D, Sheeder, J, Kondapalli, LA. A review of the oncology patient’s challenges for utilizing fertility preservation services. J Adolesc Young Adult Oncol. 2017;6(1):31–44.Google Scholar
Klosky, J, Randolph, ME, Navid, F, et al. Sperm cryopreservation practices among adolescent cancer patients at risk for infertility. Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2009;26:252–260.Google Scholar
Patel, P, Kohn, TP, Cohen, J, Shiff, B, Kohn, J, Ramasamy, R. Evaluation of reported fertility preservation counseling before chemotherapy using the Quality Oncology Practice Initiative Survey. JAMA Netw Open. 2020;3(7):e2010806.Google Scholar
Lawson, A, McGuire, JM, Noncent, E, Olivieri, JF, Smith, KN, Marsh, EE. Disparities in counseling female cancer patients for fertility preservation. J Womens Health (Larchmt). 2017;26(8):886–891.Google Scholar
Yang, H, Ramstein, J, Smith, J. Non-oncologic indications for male fertility preservation. Curr Urol Rep. 2019;20(9):51.Google Scholar
Condorelli, M, Demeestere, I. Challenges of fertility preservation in non‐oncological diseases. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2019;98(5):638–646.Google Scholar
Johnson, E, Finlayson, C, Rowell, EE, et al. Fertility preservation for pediatric patients: current state and future possibilities. J Urol. 2017;198(1):186–194.Google Scholar
Ataman, LM, Rodrigues, JK, Marinho, RM, et al. Creating a global community of practice for oncofertility. J Glob Oncol. 2016;2(2):83–96.Google Scholar
Meistrich, M. Effects of chemotherapy and radiotherapy on spermatogenesis in humans. Fertil Steril. 2013;100(5):1180–1186.Google Scholar
Frydman, R, Grynberg, M. Male fertility preservation: innovations and questions. Fertil Steril. 2016;105(2):247–248.Google Scholar
Okada, K, Fujisawa, M. Recovery of spermatogenesis following cancer treatment with cytotoxic chemotherapy and radiotherapy. World J Mens Health. 2019;37(2):166–174.Google Scholar
Stahl, P, Stember, DS, Hsiao, W, Schlegel, PN. Indications and strategies for fertility preservation in men. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2010;53(4):815–827.Google Scholar
Trost, L, Brannigan, R. Fertility preservation in males. In: Gracia, C, Woodruff, TK, eds. Oncofertility medical practice: clinical issues and implementation. Springer Science+Business Media; 2012:27–44.Google Scholar
T’Sjoen, G, Caenegem, EV, Wierckx, K. Transgenderism and reproduction. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes. 2013;20(6):575–579.Google Scholar
Adeleye, A, Reid, G, Kao, CN, Mok-Lin, E, Smith, JF. Semen parameters among transgender women with a history of hormonal treatment. Urology. 2019;124:136–141.Google Scholar
Mehta, A, Sigman, M. Management of the dry ejaculate: a systematic review of aspermia and retrograde ejaculation. Fertil Steril. 2015;104(5):1074–1081.Google Scholar
Practice Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine. Fertility preservation in patients undergoing gonadotoxic therapy or gonadectomy: a committee opinion. Fertil Steril. 2019;112(6):1022–1033.Google Scholar
Adank, M, van Dorp, W, Smit, M, et al. Electroejaculation as a method of fertility preservation in boys diagnosed with cancer: a single-center experience and review of the literature. Fertil Steril. 2014;102(1):199–205.e1.Google Scholar
Tur-Kaspa, I, Segal, S, Moffa, F, Massobrio, M, Meltzer, S. Viagra for temporary erectile dysfunction during treatments with assisted reproductive technologies. Hum Reprod. 1999;14(7):1783–1784.Google Scholar
Berookhim, B, Mulhall, JP. Outcomes of operative sperm retrieval strategies for fertility preservation among males scheduled to undergo cancer treatment. Fertil Steril. 2014;101(3):805–811.Google Scholar
Benoit, M, Chiles, K, Hsieh, M. The landscape of coverage for fertility preservation in male pediatric patients. Urol Pract. 2018;5(3):198–204.Google Scholar
Jiang, D, Swenson, E, Mason, M, et al. Effects of estrogen on spermatogenesis in transgender women. Urology. 2019;132:117–122.Google Scholar
Schrader, M, Muller, M, Sofikitis, N, et al. “Onco-Tese”: testicular sperm extraction in azospermic cancer patients before chemotherapy – new guidelines? Urology. 2003;61(2):421–425.Google Scholar
Bhattacharya, S, Harrild, K, Mollison, J, et al. Clomifene citrate or unstimulated intrauterine insemination compared with expectant management for unexplained infertility: pragmatic randomised controlled trial. BMJ. 2008;337.Google Scholar
Katz, P, Showstack, J, Smith, JF, et al. Costs of infertility treatment: results from an 18-month prospective cohort study. Fertil Steril. 2011;95(3):915–921.Google Scholar
Wu, A, Odisho, AY, Washington, SL, Katz, PP, Smith, JF. Out-of-pocket fertility patient expense: data from a multicenter prospective infertility cohort. J Urol. 2013;191(2):427–432.Google Scholar
Neblett, M, Hipp, H. Fertility considerations in transgender persons. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2019;48(2):391–402.Google Scholar
Mehta, A, Nangia, AK, Dupree, JM, Smith, JF. Limitations and barriers in access to care for male factor infertility. Fertil Steril. 2016;105(5):1128–1137.Google Scholar
Goodman, L, Balthazar, U, Kim, J, Mersereau, JE. Trends of socioeconomic disparities in referral patterns for fertility preservation consultation. Hum Reprod. 2012;27(7):2076–2981.Google Scholar
Schenker, J. Assisted reproduction practice: religious perspectives. Reprod Biomed Online. 2005;10(3):310–319.Google Scholar
Quinn, G, Vadaparampil, ST, King, L, et al. Impact of physicians’ personal discomfort and patient prognosis on discussion of fertility preservation with young cancer patients. Patient Educ Couns. 2009;77(3):338–343.Google Scholar
Schover, L, Brey, K, Lichtin, A, Lipshultz, LI, Jeha, S. Oncologists’ attitudes and practices regarding banking sperm before cancer treatment. J Clin Oncol. 2002;20(7):1890–1897.Google Scholar
Anazodo, A, Laws, P, Logan, S, et al. How can we improve oncofertility care for patients? A systematic scoping review of current international practice and models of care. Hum Reprod Update. 2019;25(2):159–179.Google Scholar
Letourneau, J, Smith, JF, Ebbel, EE, et al. Racial, socioeconomic, and demographic disparities in access to fertility preservation in young women diagnosed with cancer. Cancer. 2012;118(18):4579–4588.Google Scholar
Ethics Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine. Access to fertility services by transgender persons: an Ethics Committee opinion. Fertil Steril. 2015;104(5):1111–1115.Google Scholar
Baram, S, Myers, SA, Yee, S, Librach, CL. Fertility preservation for transgender adolescents and young adults: a systematic review. Hum Reprod Update. 2019;25(6):696–716.Google Scholar
Martinez, F, International Society for Fertility Preservation–ESHRE–ASRM Expert Working Group. Update on fertility preservation from the Barcelona International Society for Fertility Preservation–ESHRE–ASRM 2015 expert meeting: indications, results and future perspectives. Hum Reprod. 32(9):1802–1811.Google Scholar
Committee on Bioethics, American Academy of Pediatrics. Informed consent, parental permission, and assent in pediatric practice. Pediatrics, 1995;95(2):314–317.Google Scholar
Ramstein, J, Halpern, J, Gadzinski, AJ, Brannigan, RE, Smith, JF. Ethical, moral, and theological insights into advances in male pediatric and adolescent fertility preservation. Andrology. 2017;5(4):631–639.Google Scholar
Stein, D, Victorson, DE, Choy, JT, et al. Fertility preservation preferences and perspectives among adult male survivors of pediatric cancer and their parents. J Adolesc Young Adult Oncol. 2014;3(2):75–82.Google Scholar
Zebrack, B, Casillas, J, Nohr, L, Adams, H, Zeltzer, LK. Fertility issues for young adult survivors of childhood cancer. Psychooncology. 2004;13:689–699.Google Scholar
Quinn, G, Knapp, C, Murphy, D, Sawczyn, K, Sender, L. Congruence of reproductive concerns among adolescents with cancer and parents: pilot testing an adapted instrument. Pediatrics. 2012;129(4):e930–e936.Google Scholar
Ginsberg, J, Carlson, CA, Lin, K, et al. An experimental protocol for fertility preservation in prepubertal boys recently diagnosed with cancer: a report of acceptability and safety. Hum Reprod. 2010;25(1):37–41.Google Scholar
Hermann, BP, et al. Spermatogonial stem cell transplantation into rhesus testes regenerates spermatogenesis producing functional sperm. Cell Stem Cell. 2012;11(5):715–726.Google Scholar
Fayomi, AP, Peters, K, Suhkwani, M, et al. Autologous grafting of cryopreserved prepubertal rhesus testis produces sperm and offspring. Science. 2019;363(6433):1314–1319.Google Scholar
Hayashi, K, Ohta, H, Kurimoto, K, et al. Reconstitution of the mouse germ cell specification pathway in culture by pluripotent stem cells. Cell. 2011;146(4):519–532.Google Scholar
Hayashi, K, Ogushi, S, Kurimoto, K, et al. Offspring from oocytes derived from in vitro primordial germ cell-like cells in mice. Science. 2012;338(6109):971–975.Google Scholar
Eguizabal, C, Montserrat, N, Vassena, R, et al. Complete meiosis from human induced pluripotent stem cells. Stem Cells. 2011;29(8):1186–1195.Google Scholar
Easley, CA, Philips, BT, McGuire, MM, et al. Direct differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells into haploid spermatogenic cells. Cell Rep. 2012;2(3):440–446.Google Scholar
Liu, W, Schulster, ML, Alukal, JP, Najari, BB. Fertility preservation in male to female transgender patients. Urol Clin North Am. 2019;46(4):487–493.Google Scholar
Kafetsoulis, A, Brackett, NL, Ibrahim, E, Attia, GR, Lynne, CM. Current trends in the treatment of infertility in men with spinal cord injury. Fertil Steril. 2006;86(4):781–789.Google Scholar
Harris, R, Kolaitis, IN, Frader, JE. Ethical issues involving fertility preservation for transgender youth. J Assist Reprod Genet. 2020;37(10):2453–2462.Google Scholar
Wiepjes, C, Nota, NM, Blok, CJM, et al. The Amsterdam Cohort of Gender Dysphoria Study (1972e2015): trends in prevalence, treatment, and regrets. J Sex Med. 2018;15(4):582–590.Google Scholar
de Vries, A, McGuire, JK, Steensma, TD, Wagenaar, ECF, Doreleijers, TAH, Cohen-Kettenis, PT. Young adult psychological outcome after puberty suppression and gender reassignment. Pediatrics. 2014;134(4):696–704.Google Scholar
Wang, Y, Anazodo, A, Logan, S. Systematic review of fertility preservation patient decision aids for cancer patients. Psychooncology. 2018;28(3):459–467.Google Scholar
Gassei, K, Orwig, KE. Experimental methods to preserve male fertility and treat male factor infertility. Fertil Steril. 2015;105(2):256–266.Google Scholar
Meistrich, M, Wilson, G, Mathur, K, et al. Rapid recovery of spermatogenesis after mitoxantrone, vincristine, vinblastine, and prednisone chemotherapy for Hodgkin’s disease. J Clin Oncol. 1997;15(12):3488–3495.Google Scholar
Sonmezer, M, Oktay, K. Fertility preservation of female patients. Hum Reprod Update. 2004;10(3):251–266.Google Scholar

References

Wischmann, TH. Sexual disorders in infertile couples. J Sex Med. 2010;7(5):1868–1876.Google Scholar
Schanz, S, Reimer, T, Eichner, N, et al. Long-term life and partnership satisfaction in infertile patients: a 5-year longitudinal study. Fertil Steril. 2011;96(2):416–421.Google Scholar
American Urological Association Male Infertility Best Practice Policy Panel. (2010). The optimal evaluation of the infertile male: AUA best practice statement; American Society for Reproductive Medicine. (2012). Optimizing natural fertility.Google Scholar
Monga, M, Alexandrescu, B, Katz, SE, Stein, M, Ganiats, T. Impact of infertility on quality of life, marital adjustment, and sexual function. Urology. 2004;63(1):126–130.Google Scholar
Mosher, WD. Infertility trends among U.S. couples: 1965–1976. Fam Plann Perspect. 1982;14(1):22–27.Google Scholar
Thonneau, P, Marchand, S, Tallec, A, et al. Incidence and main causes of infertility in a resident population (1,850,000) of three French regions (1988–1989). Hum Reprod. 1991;6(6):811–816.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, ML, Lathi, RB, Baker, VL, Westphal, LM, Milki, AA, Nangia, AK. Frequency of the male infertility evaluation: data from the national survey of family growth. J Urology. 2013;189(3):1030–1034.Google Scholar
Wong, WY, Thomas, CM, Merkus, JM, Zielhuis, GA, Steegers-Theunissen, RP. Male factor subfertility: possible causes and the impact of nutritional factors. Fertil Steril. 2000;73(3):435–442.Google Scholar
Andrews, FM, Abbey, A, Halman, LJ. Is fertility-problem stress different? The dynamics of stress in fertile and infertile couples. Fertil Steril. 1992;57(6):1247–1253.Google Scholar
Van den Broeck, UE, Pasch, L, Katz, P, Millstein, S, D’Hooghe, T, Demyttenaere, K. Longitudinal follow-up of the intrusiveness of the infertility experience: predictors and gender differences. Fertil Steril. 2010;94(4):S65.Google Scholar
Pasch, LA, Holley, SR, Bleil, ME, et al. Addressing the needs of fertility treatment patients and their partners: are they informed of and do they receive mental health services. Fertil Steril. 2016;106(1):209–215.Google Scholar
Keye, W. The impact of infertility on psychosexual function. Fertil Steril. 1980;34(3):308–309.Google Scholar
Wischmann, TH. Psychogenic infertility: myths and facts. J Assist Reprod Genet. 2003;20(12):485–494.Google Scholar
Lewis, RW, Fugl-Meyer, KS, Bosch, R, et al. Epidemiology/risk factors of sexual dysfunction. J Sex Med. 2004;1(1):35–39.Google Scholar
Nene, UA, Coyaji, K, Apte, H. Infertility: a label of choice in the case of sexually dysfunctional couples. Patient Educ Couns. 2005;59(3):234–238.Google Scholar
Burns, L. Sexual counseling and infertility. In: Burns, LH, Covington, SN, eds. Infertility Counseling: A Comprehensive Handbook for Clinicians. 2nd ed. Parthenon Publishing; 2006:212–235.Google Scholar
Applegarth, LD, Grill, EA. Psychological issues in reproductive disorders. In: Chan, P, Goldstein, M, Rosenwaks, Z, eds. Reproductive Medicine Secrets. Hanley & Belfus; 2004:391–402.Google Scholar
Daniluk, JC. Women’s Sexuality across the Lifespan: Challenging Myths, Creating Meanings. Guilford Press; 1998.Google Scholar
Kedem, P, Mikulincer, M, Nathanson, YE, Bartoov, B. Psychological aspects of male infertility. Br J Med Psychol. 1990;63(1):73–80.Google Scholar
Leiblum, SR. Love, sex and infertility: the impact of infertility on couples. In Leiblum, SR, ed. Infertility: Psychological Issues and Counseling Strategies. Wiley; 1997:149–166.Google Scholar
Perelman, MA. The impact of relationship variables on the etiology, diagnosis and treatment of erectile dysfunction. Adv Primary Care Med: Clin Update. 2007;3:3–6.Google Scholar
Irvine, SCE. Male infertility and its effect on male sexuality. Sex Rel Ther. 1996;11(3):273–280.Google Scholar
Nachtigall, RD, Becker, G, Wozny, M. The effects of gender-specific diagnosis on men’s and women’s response to infertility. Fertil Steril. 1992;57(1):113–121.Google Scholar
Nene, UA, Coyaji, K, Apte, H. Infertility: a label of choice in the case of sexually dysfunctional couples. Patient Educ Couns. 2005;59(3):234–238.Google Scholar
Andrews, FM, Abbey, A, Halman, LJ. Is fertility-problem stress different? The dynamics of stress in fertile and infertile couples. Fertil Steril. 1992;57(6):1247–1253.Google Scholar
Whiteford, LM, Gonzalez, L. Stigma: the hidden burden of infertility. Soc Sci Med. 1995;40(1):27–36.Google Scholar
Shindel, AW, Nelson, CJ, Naughton, CK, Ohebshalom, M, Mulhall, JP. Sexual function and quality of life in the male partner of infertile couples: prevalence and correlates of dysfunction. J Urology. 2008;179(3):1056–1059.Google Scholar
Zoldbrod, A. Men, Women, and Infertility: Intervention and Treatment Strategies. Lexington Books; 1993.Google Scholar
Mazor, M. Emotional reactions to infertility. In: Mazor, M, Simons, H, eds. Infertility: Medical, Emotional and Social Considerations. Human Science Press; 1984:23–35.Google Scholar
Schilling, G, Muller, MJ, Haidl, G. Sexual dissatisfaction and somatic complaints in male infertility. PPmP: Psychotherapie, Psychosomatik, medizinische Psychologie. 1999;49(8):256–263.Google Scholar
Perelman, MA. Erectile dysfunction and depression: screening and treatment. Urol Clin North Am. 2011;38(2):125–139.Google Scholar
Sigg, C. Sexuality and sterility. Therapeutische Umschau Revue therapeutique. 1994;51(2):115–119.Google Scholar
Ralph, D, McNicholas, T. UK management guidelines for erectile dysfunction. BMJ. 2000;321(7259):499–503.Google Scholar
Araujo, AB, Durante, R, Feldman, HA, Goldstein, I, McKinlay, JB. The relationship between depressive symptoms and male erectile dysfunction: cross-sectional results from the Massachusetts Male Aging Study. Psychosom Med. 1998;60(4):458–465.Google Scholar
Pasch, LA, Holley, SR, Bleil, ME, Shehab, D, Katz, PP, Adler, NE. Addressing the needs of fertility treatment patients and their partners: are they informed of and do they receive mental health services? Fertil Steril. 2016;106(1):209–215.e2.Google Scholar
Althof, SE, Wieder, M. Psychotherapy for erectile dysfunction: now more relevant than ever. Endocrine. 2004;23(2–3):131–134.Google Scholar
Morse, WI, Morse, JM. Erectile impotence precipitated by organic factors and perpetuated by performance anxiety. Can Med Assoc J. 1982; 127(7):599–601.Google Scholar
Abbey, A, Andrews, FM, Halman, LJ. Provision and receipt of social support and disregard: what is their impact on the marital life quality of infertile and fertile couples? J Pers Soc Psychol. 1995;68(3):455–469.Google Scholar
O’Brien, JH, Lazarou, S, Deane, L, Jarvi, K, Zini, A. Erectile dysfunction and andropause symptoms in infertile men. J Urology. 2005;174(5):1932–1934; discussion 4.Google Scholar
Slade, P, Raval, H, Buck, P, Lieberman, BE. A 3-year follow-up of emotional, marital, and sexual functioning in couples who were infertile. J Reprod Infant Psychol. 1992;10(4):233–243.Google Scholar
Saleh, RA, Ranga, GM, Raina, R, Nelson, DR, Agarwal, A. Sexual dysfunction in men undergoing infertility evaluation: a cohort observational study. Fertil Steril. 2003;79(4):909–912.Google Scholar
Zilbergeld, B. The New Male Sexuality. Bantam Books; 1999.Google Scholar
Applegarth, L, Grill, E. Psychological issues in reproductive disorders. In: Chan, PTK, Goldstein, M, Rosenwaks, Z, eds. Reproductive Medicine Secrets. Hanley & Belfus; 2004:391–402.Google Scholar
Nachtigal, RD, Becker, G, Wozny, M. The effect of gender-specific diagnosis on men’s and women’s response to infertility. Fertil Steril. 1992;57(1):113–121.Google Scholar
Hanna, E, Gough, B. Emoting infertility online: a qualitative analysis of men’s forum posts. Health (London). 2016;20(4):363–382.Google Scholar
Wright, J, Duchesne, C, Sabourin, S, Bissonnette, F, Benoit, J, Girard, Y. Psychosocial distress and infertility: men and women respond differently. Fertil Steril. 1991;55(1):100–108.Google Scholar
Stanton, AL, Tennen, H, Affleck, G, Mendola, R. Cognitive appraisal and adjustment to infertility. Women Health. 1991;17(3):1–15.Google Scholar
Berg, BJ, Wilson, JF. Psychological functioning across stages of treatment for infertility. J Behav Med. 1991;14(1):11–26.Google Scholar
Khademi, A, Alleyassin, A, Amini, M, Ghaemi, M. Evaluation of sexual dysfunction prevalence in infertile couples. J Sex Med. 2008;5(6):1402–1410.Google Scholar
Lotti, F, Corona, G, Castellini, G, et al. Semen quality impairment is associated with sexual dysfunction according to its severity. Hum Reprod. 2016;31(12):2668–2680.Google Scholar
Purcell-Lévesque, C, Brassard, A, Carranza-Mamane, B, Péloquin, K. Attachment and sexual functioning in women and men seeking fertility treatment. J Psychosom Obstet Gynecol. 2019;40(3):202–210.Google Scholar
Drosdzol, A, Skrzypulec, V. Evaluation of marital and sexual interactions of Polish infertile couples. J Sex Med. 2009;6(12):3335–3346.Google Scholar
Grill, E, Schattman, GL. Female sexual dysfunction and infertility. In: Management of Sexual Dysfunction in Men and Women: An Interdisciplinary Approach. Springer; 2016:337–342.Google Scholar
Perelman, M. Combination therapy for sexual dysfunction: integrating sex therapy and pharmacotherapy. In: Balon, R, Segraves, R, eds. Handbook of Sexual Dysfunction. Taylor & Francis; 2005:13–41.Google Scholar
Gagnon, JH, Rosen, RC, Leiblum, SR. Cognitive and social aspects of sexual dysfunction: sexual scripts in sex therapy. J Sex Marital Ther. 1982;8(1):44–56.Google Scholar
Boxer, A. Infertility and sexual dysfunction. Infertil Reprod Med Clin North Am. 1996;7:565–575.Google Scholar
Burns, L. An overview of sexual dysfunction in the infertile couple. J Fam Psychother. 1995;6:25–46.Google Scholar
Perelman, MA. Sex coaching for physicians: combination treatment for patient and partner. Int J Impot Res. 2003;15(Suppl. 5):S67–S74.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×