Abbink, Jon. 1998. “An Historical-Anthropological Approach to Islam in Ethiopia: Issues of Identity and Politics.” Journal of African Cultural Studies 11 (2): 109–124.Google Scholar

Abbink, Jon. 2008. “Muslim Monasteries? Some Aspects of Religious Culture in Northern Ethiopia.” Aethiopica: International Journal of Ethiopian Studies 11: 117–133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Abdul-Matin, Ibrahim. 2010. Green Deen: What Islam Teaches About Protecting the Planet. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.Google Scholar

Aburawa, Arwa. n.d. “Eco-Mosques: Building Green Houses of Worship.” Sisters Magazine. Accessed December 3, 2017. www.sisters-magazine.com/building-a-green-house-of-worship/.Google Scholar

Accra. 2014. “ACCRA, Ghana National Mosque, U/C.” Skyscraper City (website). May 14. Accessed September 9, 2019. www.skyscrapercity.com/showthread.php?p=119517657.Google Scholar

Adams, Bert D., and Sydie, R. A.. 2001. Sociological Theory. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.Google Scholar

Adams, Paul C. 1997. “Cyberspace and Virtual Places.” Geographical Review 87 (2): 155–171.Google Scholar

AFP. 2012. “Agenda Items 2 and 4.” Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the Situation of Human Rights in Mali. Human Rights Council, January 7.Google Scholar

AFP 2016. “Cape Town’s Gay Mosque Provides Rare Haven.” News 24. October 31. Accessed December 30, 2017. www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/cape-towns-gay-mosque-provides-rare-haven-20161031-62.Google Scholar

Ahmad, T., Thaheem, M. J., Anwar, A., and Din, Z. U.. 2016. “Implications of Stereotype Mosque Architecture on Sustainability.” Procedia Engineering 145: 96–103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ahmed, Abdul. 2018. Interview by Michelle Apotsos (February 10).Google Scholar

Ahmed, Hussein. 2007. “Reflections on Historical and Contemporary Islam in Ethiopia and Somalia: A Comparative and Contrastive Overview.” Journal of Ethiopian Studies 40 (1/2): 261–276.Google Scholar

Ahmed, K. G., and Elgizawi, L.. 2009. “Two Versions of ‘New Gourna’ and the Dilemma of Sustainability in New Urban Communities in Egypt.” Sustainable Development of Planning 120: 691–701.Google Scholar

Ahrends, P. 1996. “Public Architecture and Settlement: Architectural Practice in South Africa.” AA Files 31: 72–78.Google Scholar

Alarslan Uludas, Burcu, and Adiloglu, Fatos. 2011. “Islamic Gardens with a Special Emphasis on the Ottoman Paradise Gardens: The Sense of Place Between Imagery and Reality.” Online Journal of Communication and Media Technologies 1 (4): 44–96.Google Scholar

allAfrica. 2003. “Ethiopia: State of the Art Airport Terminal Opens.” allAfrica (website). January 22. Accessed July 15, 2019. https://allafrica.com/stories/200301220109.html.Google Scholar

Ameli, Saied Reza. 2009. “Virtual Religion and Duality of Religious Spaces.” Asian Journal of Social Science 37 (2): 208–231.Google Scholar

ANCBS. 2014. “Mission Report: Civil-Military Assessment Mission for Malian Heritage, January 13 to 19, 2014.” Association of National Committees of the Blue Shield, January.Google Scholar

Appadurai, Arjun. 1996. Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization. Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar

Apotsos, Michelle. 2012. “Holy Ground: Mud, Materiality, and Meaning in the Djenne Mosque.” Rutgers Art Review 27: 2–12.Google Scholar

Apotsos, Michelle 2016a. Architecture, Islam, and Identity in West Africa: Lessons from Larabanga. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

Apotsos, Michelle 2016b. “New Meanings and Historical Messages in the Larabanga Mosque.” African Arts 49 (4): 8–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Apotsos, Michelle 2017. “Timbuktu in Terror: Architecture and Iconoclasm in Contemporary Africa.” International Journal of Islamic Architecture 6 (1): 97–120.Google Scholar

Architects for Peace. n.d. “Curriculum Vitae: Mike Pierce.” Architects for Peace (website). Accessed September 17, 2016. www.architectsforpeace.org/mickprofile.php.Google Scholar

Archnet. n.d. “The Great Mosque at Kilwa – Kilwa Kisiwani, Tanzania.” Archnet (website). Accessed August 7, 2019. https://archnet.org/sites/3779.Google Scholar

Armstrong, R. 2010. “Biological Architecture.” Forward: The Architecture and Design Journal of the National Associates Committee 110: 77–82.Google Scholar

As, Imdat. 2006. “The Digital Mosque: A New Paradigm in Mosque Design.” Journal of Architectural Education 60 (1): 54–55.Google Scholar

Asad, Talal. 2009. “The Idea of an Anthropology of Islam.” Qui Parle 17 (2): 1–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Assey, Paschal, Bass, Stephen, Cheche, Blandina, Howlett, David, Jambiya, George, Kikula, Idris, Likwelile, Servacius, et al. 2007. Environment at the Heart of Tanzania’s Development: Lessons from Tanzania’s National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty – MKUKUTA. Vol. 6. London: International Institute for Environment and Development.Google Scholar

Augé, Marc. 1995. Non-Places: Introduction to an Anthropology of Supermodernity. Translated by John Howe. London and New York: Verso.Google Scholar

Avni, Gideon. 2007. “From Standing Stones to Open Mosques in the Negev Desert: The Archaeology of Religious Transformation on the Fringes.” Near Eastern Archaeology 70 (3): 124–138.Google Scholar

Aziz, A. A. 2016. “Execution of Contemporary Islamic Architecture Through Design: The Cyberjaya Green Platinum Mosque Project in Malaysia.” In WIT Transactions on the Built Environment, Volume 159, edited by Brebbia, C. A. and Martinez Boquera, A., 11–21. Southampton: WIT Press. Paper presented at the 1st International Conference on Islamic Heritage Architecture and Art (IHA).Google Scholar

Babou, Cheikh Anta. 2007. “Urbanizing Mystical Islam: Making Murid Space in the Cities of Senegal.” The International Journal of African Historical Studies 40 (2): 197–223.Google Scholar

Badaru, Comfort. n.d. “Cultural Heritage – Urban Dynamics: Zanzibar, Bagamoyo, Dar es Salaam.” Report on conference held at the Goethe Institute, November 4. https://aat.archi/publication/view/cultural-heritage-urban-dynamics/.Google Scholar

Baderoon, Gabeba. 2019. “Reading the Hidden History of the Cape: Islam and Slavery in the Making of Race and Sex in South Africa.” In Slavery in the Islamic World: Its Characteristics and Commonality, edited by Fay, Mary Ann, 37–50. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar

Barrie, Thomas, and Bermudez, Julio. 2008. “Introduction – Immateriality in Architecture.” Journal of Architectural Education 62 (2): 4–5.Google Scholar

Barthes, Roland. 2013. Mythologies. New York: Hill and Wang.Google Scholar

Bassett, Caroline. 2007. The Arc and the Machine: Narrative and New Media. Manchester: Manchester University Press.Google Scholar

Bauman, Zygmunt. 2004. Europe: An Unfinished Adventure. Cambridge: Polity Press.Google Scholar

Baydar, Gülsüm. 2004. “The Cultural Burden of Architecture.” Journal of Architectural Education 57 (4): 19–27.Google Scholar

BBC. 2009. “Religions: Hijab.” BBC (website). September 3. Accessed January 3, 2018. www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/beliefs/hijab_1.shtml.Google Scholar

Becker, Felicitas. 2006. “Rural Islamism During the ‘War on Terror’: A Tanzanian Case Study.” African Affairs 105 (421): 583–603.Google Scholar

Belkhir, Jean Ait, and Butler, Johnella E.. 1998. “Introduction: Environmentalism and Race, Gender, Class Issues.” Race, Gender, & Class 6 (1): 5–11.Google Scholar

Bender, Courtney. 2014. “The Architecture of Multi-Faith Prayer: Airport Multi-Faith Prayer Rooms.” Reverberations: New Directions in the Study of Prayer. SSRC Forums (website). August 4. Accessed September 26, 2017. http://forums.ssrc.org/ndsp/category/the-architecture-of-multi-faith-prayer/.Google Scholar

Bennett, Tony. 1996. “The Exhibitionary Complex.” In Thinking About Exhibitions, edited by Greenberg, Reesa and Ferguson, Bruce W., 81–112. Sussex: Psychology Press.Google Scholar

Bergdoll, Barry. 2007. “Of Crystals, Cells, and Strata: Natural History and Debates on the Form of a New Architecture in the Nineteenth Century.” Architectural History 50: 1–29.Google Scholar

Bhabha, Homi K. 1994. “Of Mimicry and Man: The Ambivalence of Colonial Discourse.” In his The Location of Culture, 85–92. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

Bhatt, Ritu, and Patel, Alka. 1998. “How Buildings Divide and Unite Us: The Case of Mandal (Gujarat, India).” Thresholds 17: 47–51.Google Scholar

Binte-Farid, Irteza. 2013. “Kramats in Cape Town: Telling Stories of Slavery, Defiance, and Identity.” Avicenna – The Stanford Journal on Muslim Affairs 3 (1): 12–14.Google Scholar

Bird, Michael, and Sentek, Zeynep. 2015. “Revealed: Turkey’s Massive Global Mega-Mosque Plan.” The Black Sea (website). September 29. Accessed September 9, 2019. https://theblacksea.eu/_old/mirror/theblacksea.eu/index340e.html?idT=88&idC=88&idRec=1211&recType=story.Google Scholar

Bissell, William Cunningham. 2005. “Engaging Colonial Nostalgia.” Cultural Anthropology 20 (2): 215–248.Google Scholar

Bokhari, Abdulla Yahia. 1980. “Some Notes on the Development of Contemporary Islamic Architecture (Extract).” Ekistics 47 (280): 76–77.Google Scholar

Boswell, Rosabelle. 2008. “Scents of Identity: Fragrance as Heritage in Zanzibar.” Journal of Contemporary African Studies 26 (3): 295–311.Google Scholar

Boudier, Jean Paul, and Minh-ha, Trinh T.. 1998. Drawn from African Dwellings. Indianapolis: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar

Bourgeois, Jean-Louis, and Pelos, Carollee. 1982. “Magnificent Mud: Mosques in Mali.” Edited by Hasan-Uddin Khan. MIMAR 3: Architecture in Development 3, 9–15.Google Scholar

Bourgeois, Jean-Louis, and Pelos, Carollee 1996. Spectacular Vernacular: The Adobe Tradition. New York: Aperture Foundation Inc.Google Scholar

Böwering, Gerhard, Crone, Patricia, and Mirza, Mahan. 2013. The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Bowker, Sam. 2016. “From Tin Sheds to Temples: The Past, Present, and Potential of the Australian Mosque.” The Guardian. September 22. Accessed August 5, 2019. www.theguardian.com/world/2016/sep/23/tin-sheds-temples-past-present-potential-australian-mosques.Google Scholar

Braukämper, Ulrich. 1984. “On Food Avoidances in Southern Ethiopia: Religious Manifestation and Socio-Economic Relevance.” Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference of Ethiopian Studies, edited by Rubenson, Sven, 429–446. Addis Abeba: Institute of Ethiopian Studies; Uppsala: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.Google Scholar

Buchli, Victor. 2015. The Anthropology of Architecture. London: Bloomsbury Academic.Google Scholar

Casey, Edward. 1987. “Place Memory.” In his Remembering: A Phenomenological Study, 181–215. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar

Chidester, David, and Linenthal, Edward. 1995. “Introduction.” In American Sacred Space, edited by Chidester, David and Linenthal, Edward, 1–42. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar

Clifford, James. 1997. Routes: Travel and Translation in the Late Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

CMRM. n.d. “Vision and Mission.” Claremont Main Road Mosque (website). Accessed July 24, 2019. https://cmrm.co.za/vision-and-mission/.Google Scholar

Coleman, Simon, and Eade, John. 2004. Reframing Pilgrimage: Cultures in Motion. London: Routledge.Google Scholar

Collison, Carl. 2017. “Queer Muslim Women Are Making Salaam with Who They Are.” Mail & Guardian. February 10. Accessed September 28, 2017. https://mg.co.za/article/2017-02-10-queer-muslim-women-are-making-salaam-with-who-they-are.Google Scholar

Connery, W. 2000. “Within the Walls of Ethiopia’s Islamic City of Harar.” World and I 15: 184–191.Google Scholar

Couldry, Nick. 2007. “Pilgrimage in Mediaspace: Continuities and Transformations.” Etnofoor 20 (1): 63–73.Google Scholar

Coulon, Christian. 1999. “The Grand Magal in Touba: A Religious Festival of the Mouride Brotherhood of Senegal.” African Affairs 98 (391): 195–210.Google Scholar

Creighton, Oliver. 2007. “Contested Townscapes: The Walled City as World Heritage.” World Archaeology 39 (3): 339–354.Google Scholar

Crenshaw, Kimberlé. 1989. “Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics.” University of Chicago Legal Forum 1989 (1): 139–167.Google Scholar

Crompton, Andrew. 2013. “The Architecture of Multifaith Spaces: God Leaves the Building.” The Journal of Architecture 18 (4): 474–496.Google Scholar

Currier, Ashley. 2012. Out in Africa: LGBT Organizing in Namibia and South Africa. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar

Daragahi, Borzou. 2015. “The Secret of Turkey’s Ever Expanding Mega-Mosques.” Buzzfeed News (website). December 15. Accessed September 9, 2019. www.buzzfeednews.com/article/borzoudaragahi/the-real-reason-turkey-is-building-so-many-mosques.Google Scholar

Davary, Bahar. 2016. “‘King-Slaves’ in South Africa: Shrines, Rituals, and Resistance.” In Hagiography and Religious Truth: Case Studies in the Abrahamic and Dharmic Tradition, edited by Monge, Rico G., San Chirico, Kerry P. C., and Smith, Rachel J., 137–151. London: Bloomsbury Academic.Google Scholar

Davidson, Naomi. 2012. Only Muslim: Embodying Islam in Twentieth-Century France. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar

Davis, Richard H. 2005. “Iconoclasm in the Era of Strong Religion.” Material Religion: The Journal of Objects, Art, and Belief 1 (2): 261–268.Google Scholar

Davis, Richard H. 2009. “The Rise and Fall of a Sacred Place: Ayodhya over Three Decades.” In Culture and Belonging in Divided Societies: Contestation and Symbolic Landscapes, edited by Ross, Marc Howard, 25–44. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar

de Jong, Ferdinand. 2007. “A Masterpiece of Masquerading: Contradictions of Conservation in Intangible Heritage.” In Reclaiming Heritage: Alternative Imaginaries of Memory in West Africa, edited by de Jong, Ferdinand and Rowlands, Michael, 161–184. Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press.Google Scholar

de Jorio, Rosa. 2016. Cultural Heritage in Mali in the Neoliberal Era. Chicago: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar

de Vere Allen, James. 1974. “Swahili Architecture in the Later Middle Ages.” African Arts 7 (2): 42–47; 66–68; 83–84.Google Scholar

de Vere Allen, James 1989. “The Kiti Cha Enzi and Other Swahili Chairs.” African Arts 22 (3): 54–63; 88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Deccan Herald. 2016. “Badriya Jam’a Masjid to Be Zero Energy Mosque.” Deccan Herald. January 16. Accessed August 9, 2019. www.deccanherald.com/content/523278/badriya-juma-masjid-zero-energy.html.Google Scholar

Della Dora, Veronica. 2015. “Introduction: Sacred Space Unbound.” Society and Space. June. Accessed August 5, 2019. https://societyandspace.org/2015/06/12/virtual-issue-13-sacred-space-unbound/.Google Scholar

Della Dora, Veronica 2016. Landscape, Nature, and the Sacred in Byzantium. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Demoz, Abraham. 1969. “The Many Worlds of Ethiopia.” African Affairs 68 (270): 49–54.Google Scholar

Denny, Mark, and Alan, McFadzean. 2011. Engineering Animals: How Life Works. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Desplat, Patrick. 2005. “The Articulation of Religious Identities and Their Boundaries in Ethiopia: Labelling Difference and Processes of Contextualization in Islam.” Journal of Religion in Africa 35 (4): 482–505.Google Scholar

Dickinson, Daniel. 2005. “Eco-Islam Hits Zanzibar Fishermen.” BBC News (website). February 17. Accessed February 23, 2017. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4271519.stm.Google Scholar

Dilley, Roy. 2011. “‘Daaira,’ Devotional Acts, and the Transformation of Space in Senegal, West Africa.” Anthropos 106 (1): 185–192.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dillon, Brian. 2011. Ruins. Cambridge: MIT Press.Google Scholar

Diouf, Ibou. 2002. “Comme car rapide ou les tentatives d’intégration du transport artisanal.” In Les transports et la ville en Afrique au sud du Sahara: Le temps de la débrouille et du désordre inventif, edited by Goddard, Xavier, 43–56. Paris: Karthala Editions.Google Scholar

Donley-Read, L. W. 1990. “A Structuring Structure: The Swahili House.” In Domestic Architecture and the Use of Space, edited by Kent, S., 114–126. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Dubisch, Jill. 2014. Pilgrimage and Healing. Tucson: The University of Arizona Press.Google Scholar

Dyke, Kristina van. 2005. “Beyond Monument Lies Empire: Mapping Songhay Space in Tenth to Sixteenth Century West Africa.” RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics 48: 33–44.Google Scholar

Ebron, Paulla A. 2009. Performing Africa. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Economist. 2012. “Prayers and Playthings: Making Money from Believers.” The Economist. July 14. Accessed September 25, 2019. www.economist.com/international/2012/07/14/prayers-and-playthings.Google Scholar

Edensor, Timothy. 2005. “The Ghosts of Industrial Ruins: Ordering and Disordering Memory in Excessive Space.” Society & Space (Environment and Planning) 23 (6): 829–850.Google Scholar

Elias, Jamal J. 2011. On Wings of Diesel: Trucks, Identity and Culture in Pakistan. Oxford: Oneworld.Google Scholar

Elias, Jamal J. 2012. Aisha’s Cushion: Religious Art, Perception, and Practice in Islam. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

El-Khatib, Abdallah. 2001. “Jerusalem in the Qur’an.” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 28 (1): 25–53.Google Scholar

El-Zein, Abdul Hamid. 1977. “Beyond Ideology and Theology: The Search for the Anthropology of Islam.” Annual Review of Anthropology 6: 227–254.Google Scholar

Emerick, Keith. 2014. Conserving and Managing Ancient Monuments: Heritage, Democracy, and Inclusion. Suffolk: Boydell and Brewer.Google Scholar

Erzen, Jale Nejdet. 2011. “Reading Mosques: Meaning and Architecture in Islam.” The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 69 (1): 125–131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Essoungou, André-Michel. 2010. “A Social Media Boom Begins in Africa.” United Nations Africa Renewal Magazine. December. Accessed November 10, 2017. www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/december-2010/social-media-boom-begins-africa.Google Scholar

Ethiopian Airlines. n.d. “About Us: History.” Ethiopian Airlines (website). Accessed July 15, 2019. www.ethiopianairlines.com/corporate/company/about-us/history.Google Scholar

Ethiopians. 2001. “The New Bole International Airport Terminal Due to Open in May 2001.” The Ethiopians (website). March. Accessed April 3, 2018. www.ethioopians.com/bole_airport.htm.Google Scholar

Ewing, Katherine Pratt. 1998. “Crossing Borders and Transgressing Boundaries: Metaphors for Negotiating Multiple Identities.” Ethos 26 (2): 262–267.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ewing, Katherine Pratt 2010. “Exim Tower/SPASM Design Architects.” Archdaily (website). August 7. Accessed October 17, 2017. www.archdaily.com/72087/exim-tower-spasm-design-architects.Google Scholar

Ewing, Katherine Pratt 2012. “Extremists Destroy Historic Shrines in Timbuktu, Mali.” RT (website). July 1. Accessed August 6, 2019. http://rt.com/news/islamists-destroy-timbuktu-mali-131/.Google Scholar

Farivar, Cyrus. 2011. The Internet of Elsewhere: The Emergent Effects of a Wired World. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar

Ferguson, James G. 2002. “Of Mimicry and Membership: Africans and the ‘New World Society.’” Cultural Anthropology 17 (4): 551–569.Google Scholar

Finlayson, C. 2001. “Behind the Arabesque: Understanding Islamic Art and Architecture.” Brigham Young University Studies 40 (4): 69–88.Google Scholar

Flood, Finbarr Barry. 2002. “Between Cult and Culture: Bamiyan, Islamic Iconoclasm, and the Museum.” The Art Bulletin 84 (4): 641–659.Google Scholar

Foley, Ellen E. 2010. Your Pocket Is What Cures You: The Politics of Health in Senegal. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar

Fontein, Joost. 2000. UNESCO, Heritage, and Africa: An Anthropological Critique of World Heritage. Occasional Papers 80. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh, Centre of African Studies.Google Scholar

Furman, Adam Nathaniel. 2017. “Adam Nathaniel Furman’s Democratic Monument.” An Interior Magazine. Fall. Accessed September 24, 2019. https://aninteriormag.com/adam-nathaniel-furmans-democratic-monument/.Google Scholar

Gaffney, Patrick. 1992. “Popular Islam.” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 524: 38–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gamboni, Dario. 1997. The Destruction of Art: Iconoclasm and Vandalism since the French Revolution. London: Reaktion Books.Google Scholar

Gamboni, Dario 2011. “Targeting Architecture: Iconoclasm and the Asymmetry of Conflicts.” In Der Sturm der Bilder: Zerstörte und Zerstörende Kunst von der Antike bis in die Gegenwart, edited by Fleckner, Uwe, Steinkamp, Maike, and Ziegler, Hendrik, 119–137. Berlin: Akademie Verlag.Google Scholar

García, Canclini N. 2000. Transforming Modernity: Popular Culture in Mexico. Austin: University of Texas Press.Google Scholar

Ghana Friendship and Solidarity Association. 2017. “AkraFurqan Complex.” AkraFurqan Camii Ve Külliyesi (website). Accessed September 21, 2019. www.accrafurqan.com/tr/akrafurkan-kulliyesi.html.Google Scholar

GhanaWeb. 2014. “Accra Gets a New Mosque.” GhanaWeb (website). August 13. Accessed September 9, 2019. www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Accra-gets-new-Central-Mosque-321031#.Google Scholar

Golombek, Lisa. 1983. “The Resilience of the Friday Mosque: The Case of Herat.” Muqarnas 1: 95–102.Google Scholar

Goolam, Vahed. 2000. “Indians, Islam and the Meaning of South African Citizenship: A Question of Identities.” Transformation: Critical Perspectives on Southern Africa Transformation 43: 25–51.Google Scholar

Graziano, Alicia. 2014. “Alhamdoulillah: The Use of the Car Rapide as a Living Symbol of Senegal.” Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection (Paper 1911). SIT Digital Collections (website). Accessed February 17, 2021. http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/isp_collection/1911.Google Scholar

Grosz-Ngate, Maria Luise, Hanson, John H., and O’Meara, Patrick. 2014. Africa. 4th ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar

Guest, Gerald B. 2012. “Space.” Studies in Iconography 33: 219–230.Google Scholar

Guèye, Cheikh. 2003. “New Information & Communication Technology Use by Muslim Mourides in Senegal.” Review of African Political Economy 30 (98): 609–625.Google Scholar

Hagen, Victor W. Von. 1942. “Natural History of Termites.” The Scientific Monthly 54 (6): 489–498.Google Scholar

Haider, Gulzar. 1996. “Muslim Space and the Practice of Architecture: A Personal Odyssey.” In Making Muslim Space in North America and Europe, edited by Metcalf, Barbara, 31–45. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Hammond, Andrew. 2012. The Islamic Utopia: The Illusion of Reform in Saudi Arabia. London: Pluto Press.Google Scholar

Haney, Gina, Allen, Jeff, Avrami, Erica, and Raynolds, William. 2011. “New Gourna: Conservation and Community.” World Monuments Fund (website). May. www.wmf.org/publication/new-gourna-village-conservation-and-community.Google Scholar

Harari Regional State Cultural Heritage and Tourism Bureau. 2015. “Harar.” Addis Ababa: Harari Regional State Cultural Heritage and Tourism Bureau.Google Scholar

Harrison, Rodney. 2013. Heritage: Critical Approaches. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

Hassner, Ron E. 2007. “Islamic Just War Theory and the Challenge of Sacred Space in Iraq.” Journal of International Affairs 61 (1): 131–152.Google Scholar

Hecht, E. D. 1987. “Harar and Lamu: A Comparison of Two East African Muslim Societies.” TransAfrican Journal of History 16: 1–23.Google Scholar

Henderson, Richard N., and Umunna, Ifekandu. 1988. “Leadership Symbolism in Onitsha Ogbo Crowns and Ijele.” African Arts 21 (2): 28–37; 94; 96.Google Scholar

Hendricks, Muhsin. 2010. “Islamic Texts: A Source of Acceptance of Queer Individuals into Mainstream Muslim Society.” The Equal Rights Review 5: 31–51.Google Scholar

Hirschkind, Charles. 2001. “The Ethics of Listening: Cassette-Sermon Audition in Contemporary Egypt.” American Ethnologist 28 (3): 623–649.Google Scholar

Hoel, Nina. 2013a. “Feminism and Religion and the Politics of Location: Situating Islamic Feminism in South Africa.” Journal of Gender and Religion in Africa 19 (2): 73–89.Google Scholar

Hoel, Nina 2013b. “Sexualising the Sacred, Sacralising Sexuality: An Analysis of Public Responses to Muslim Women’s Religious Leadership in the Context of a Cape Town Mosque.” Journal for the Study of Religion 26 (2): 25–41. Accessed August 17, 2017. www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1011-76012013000100003.Google Scholar

hooks, bell. 1984. Feminist Theory: From Margin to Centre. Boston: South End Press.Google Scholar

Huang, Wei-Jue, Xiao, Honggen, and Wang, Sha. 2018. “Airports as Liminal Space.” Annals of Tourism Research 70: 1–13.Google Scholar

Hudson, Alexandra. 2010. “South Africa Muslims Look to Welcome Muslim Fans.” Reuters (website). June 16. Accessed July 15, 2019. www.reuters.com/article/us-soccer-world-muslims/south-africa-muslims-look-to-welcome-muslim-fans-idUSTRE65F2VU20100616.Google Scholar

Huis, Arnold van. 2017. “Cultural Significance of Termites in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 13 (8): 1–12.Google Scholar

Hyung-Jun, Kim. 2007. Reformist Muslims in a Yogyakarta Village: The Islamic Transformation of Contemporary Socio-Religious Life. Canberra: Australian National University Press.Google Scholar

Insoll, Timothy. 2003. The Archaeology of Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Islamic Help. n.d. “Children’s Eco-Village: Visioning Document.” Accessed February 15, 2017. www.ihelpglobal.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/Childrens-Eco-Village.pdf.Google Scholar

Ismail, Farhana. 2015. “Struggling to Find God in a Shared Space.” Mail & Guardian. September 19. Accessed August 6, 2019. https://mg.co.za/article/2014-09-19-the-prophets-mosque-was-a-space-shared-by-men-and-women.Google Scholar

Iziko Museums. 2017. “Moffies.” New Year Carnival in Cape Town (exhibition). Iziko Museum (Slave Lodge), Cape Town, January.Google Scholar

Jackson, Michael. 2005. Existential Anthropology: Events, Exigencies, and Effects. New York: Berghahn Books.Google Scholar

Jaffer, Mansoor, Essack, Razia, and Davids, Achmat. 2010. Guide to the Kramats of the Western Cape. Cape Town: The Cape Mazaar (Kramat) Society.Google Scholar

Janson, Marloes. 2011. “Living Islam Through Death: Demarcating Muslim Identity in a Rural Serahuli Community in the Gambia.” The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 17 (1): 100–115.Google Scholar

Jarzombek, Mark. 2006. “Sustainability: Fuzzy Systems and Wicked Problems.” Log 8: 7–12.Google Scholar

Jawondo, Ibrahim Ganiyu, Abdul. 2012. “Architectural History of Ilorin Mosques in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries.” Social Dynamics 38 (2): 303–313.Google Scholar

Jeenah, Naeem. 2001. “‘A Degree Above ….’ The Emergence of Islamic Feminisms in South Africa in the 1990s.” Master’s thesis. University of Witwatersrand.Google Scholar

Jencks, Charles. 2004. “Towards an Iconography of the Present.” Log 3: 101–108.Google Scholar

Jensen, Steffen. 2005. “Above the Law: Practices of Sovereignty in Surrey Estate, Cape Town.” In Sovereign Bodies: Citizens, Migrants, and States in the Postcolonial World, edited by Hansen, Thomas Blom, 218–238. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Jones, Dorian. 2015. “Does Turkey Aspire to the Leadership of the Islamic World?” Qantara (website). Accessed November 10, 2017. https://en.qantara.de/content/turkeys-mosque-building-programme-does-turkey-aspire-to-the-leadership-of-the-islamic-world.Google Scholar

Jones, Paul. 2006. “The Sociology of Architecture and the Politics of Building: The Discursive Construction of Ground Zero.” Sociology 40 (3): 549–565.Google Scholar

Jones, Paul 2011. The Sociology of Architecture: Constructing Identities. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press.Google Scholar

Joseph, Roger. 1981. “The Semiotics of the Islamic Mosque.” Arab Studies Quarterly 3 (3): 285–295.Google Scholar

Joy, Charlotte. 2007. “‘Enchanting Town of Mud’: Djenne, A World Heritage Site in Mali.” In Reclaiming Heritage: Alternative Imaginaries of Memory in West Africa, edited by de Jong, Ferdinand and Rowlands, Michael, 145–160. Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press.Google Scholar

Kahera, Akel Ismail. 2002. “Gardens of the Righteous: Sacred Space in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.” CrossCurrents 52 (3): 328–341.Google Scholar

Kahera, Akel Ismail 2008. Deconstructing the American Mosque. Austin: University of Texas Press.Google Scholar

Karim, Sulmaan. 2015. Interview by Michelle Apotsos (April 2).Google Scholar

Karnouk, Liliane, and Vatikiotis, P. J.. 1988. Modern Egyptian Art: The Emergence of a National Style. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press.Google Scholar

Khairul, Arnaz. 2016. “Vote for Cyberjaya Mosque for the Plan International Award 2016.” New Straits Times. May 1. Accessed April 10, 2018. www.nst.com.my/news/2016/05/142777/vote-cyberjaya-mosque-plan-intl-award-2016.Google Scholar

Khan, Hasan-Uddin. 1990. “The Architecture of the Mosque: An Overview and Design Directions.” In Expressions of Islam in Buildings, edited by Salam-Liebich, Hayat, 109–127. Singapore: Concept Media/The Aga Khan Award for Architecture.Google Scholar

Khan, Shahrukh. 2014. “Ancient Causes of a Modern Conflict in Mali.” Harvard Political Review. March 23. Accessed August 6, 2019. http://harvardpolitics.com/world/ancient-causes-modern-conflict-mali/.Google Scholar

Khan, Shubnum. 2017. “South Africa’s Untold Success Story: A Christian Nation’s Peaceful History with a Muslim Minority.” Huffington Post. April 17. Accessed August 6, 2019. www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2017/04/09/south-africas-untold-success-story-a-christians-nations-peac_a_22032852/?guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZ29vZ2xlLmNvbS8&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAAA_W7qjlV9cUTuTPPOXuDXKEhojodc12ymPJzb_yRtiq0MCuak9zo63Ou.Google Scholar

Khumalo, Juniour. 2017. “Soweto’s Oldest Mosque: A Place of Solace and Suspicion.” Soweto Central: A Project of the 2017 Wits Honours in Journalism Class. Accessed March 10, 2018. http://sowetocentral.africa/sowetos-oldest-mosque/.Google Scholar

Kugle, Scott Siraj al-Haqq. 2014. Living Out Islam: Voices of Gay, Lesbian, and Transgender Muslims. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar

Lambert, Léopold. 2017. “Introduction: Colonialism as a Continuous Process, Architecture as a Spatial Apparatus.” The Funambulist 10. Accessed August 6, 2019. https://thefunambulist.net/articles/introduction-colonialism-continuous-process-architecture-spatial-apparatus-leopold-lambert.Google Scholar

Lambourn, Elizabeth. 2006. “Brick, Timber, and Stone: Building Materials and the Construction of Islamic Architectural History in Gujarat.” Muqarnas 23: 191–217.Google Scholar

LaNier, R., and McQuillan, D. A.. 1983. “The Stone Town of Zanzibar: A Strategy for Integrated Development.” Unpublished working document. Commissioned by the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements.Google Scholar

Lapidus, Ira M. 1969. “Varieties of Urban Experience: Contrast, Coexistence, and Coalescence in Cairo.” In Middle Eastern Cities: A Symposium on Ancient, Islamic, and Contemporary Middle Eastern Urbanism, edited by Lapidus, Ira M., 159–187. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Larsen, Kjersti. 2008. Where Humans and Spirits Meet: The Politics of Ritual and Identified Spirits in Zanzibar. New York: Berghahn Books.Google Scholar

Lassner, Jacob. 2017. Medieval Jerusalem: Forging an Islamic City in Spaces Sacred to Christians and Jews. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar

Lefebvre, Alain. 1989. “The Decorative Truck as Communicative Device.” Semiotica 75 (3–4): 215–227.Google Scholar

Leichtman, Mara A. 2015. Shi’i Cosmopolitanisms in Africa Lebanese Migration and Religious Conversion in Senegal. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar

Loimeier, Roman. 2013. Muslim Societies in Africa: A Historical Anthropology. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar

Loimeier, Roman 2016. Islamic Reform in Twentieth-Century Africa. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar

Lowenthal, David. 1985. The Past Is a Foreign Country. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Łykowska, Laura. 2011. “Complementary Oriental Cities, the Case of Harar and Dire Dawa (Eastern Ethiopia).” Rocznik Orientalistyczny 64: 31–37.Google Scholar

Mahida, Ebrahim Mahomed. 1993. History of Muslims in South Africa: A Chronology. Durban: Arabic Study Circle.Google Scholar

Mahmutćehajić, Rusmir. 2006. The Mosque: The Heart of Submission. New York: Fordham University Press.Google Scholar

Malcomess, Bettina, and Wilhelm-Solomon, Matthew. 2017. “Valleys of Salt in the House of God: Religious Re-Territorialisation and Urban Space.” In Routes and Rites to the City: Mobility, Diversity and Religious Space in Johannesburg, edited by Wilhelm-Solomon, Matthew, Kankonde Bukasa, Peter, Malcomess, Bettina, and Núñez, Lorena, 31–60. London: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar

Mancini, JoAnne M., Bresnahan, Keith, and Schwenkel, Christina. 2014. Architecture and Armed Conflict: The Politics of Destruction. London and New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

Mandel, Ruth. 1996. “A Place of Their Own: Contesting Spaces and Defining Places in Berlin’s Migrant Community.” In Making Muslim Space in North America and Europe, edited by Metcalf, Barbara, 147–166. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Marchand, Trevor H. J. 2015. “The Djenne Mosque: World Heritage and Social Renewal in a West African Town.” APT Bulletin 46 (2/3): 4–15.Google Scholar

Martin, Stephen J., Funch, Roy R., Hanson, Paul R., and Yoo, Eun-Hye. 2018. “A Vast 4,000-Year-Old Spatial Pattern of Termite Mounds.” Current Biology 28 (2): R1292–R1293. Accessed August 8, 2019. www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982218312879.Google Scholar

Marty, Martin E, and Scott Appleby, R.. 2004. Accounting for Fundamentalisms: The Dynamic Character of Movements. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Matthee, Heinrich. 2008. Muslim Identities and Political Strategies: A Case Study of Muslims in the Greater Cape Town Area of South Africa, 1994–2000. Kassel: Kassel University Press.Google Scholar

Mazrui, Ali A. 2005. “The Re-Invention of Africa: Edward Said, V. Y. Mudimbe, and Beyond.” Research in African Literatures 36 (3): 68–82.Google Scholar

McClanan, Anne, and Johnson, Jeff. 2005. “Introduction: ‘O for a Muse of Fire ….’” In Negating the Image: Case Studies in Iconoclasm, edited by McClanan, Anne and Johnson, Jeff, 1–12. Aldershot: Ashgate.Google Scholar

McGregor, Andrew. 2012. “Intervening in Mali: West African Nations Plan Offensive Against Islamists and Tuareg Rebels.” The Jamestown Foundation (website). July 5. Accessed May 5, 2015. www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews[tt_news]=39553#.VUV_42ZrXsA.Google Scholar

McRobert, Laurie. 2007. The Essence of Cyberspace and Immersive Virtual Spatiality. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.Google Scholar

Meier, Prita. 2009. “Objects on the Edge: Swahili Coast Objects of Display.” African Arts 42 (4): 8–23.Google Scholar

Meier, Prita 2016. Swahili Port Cities: The Architecture of Elsewhere. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar

Melice, Anne, and Pype, Katrien. 2009. “Religion and Mobility in Africa and in the African Diaspora.” Forum 30: 10–16.Google Scholar

Menbue, Mame Laye. 2018. Interview by Michelle Apotsos (April 12).Google Scholar

Metcalf, Barbara. 1996. “Introduction: Sacred Words, Sanctioned Practice, New Communities.” In Making Muslim Space in North America and Europe, edited by Metcalf, Barbara, 1–27. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2001. “Vegetal Patterns in Islamic Art.” Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Metropolitan Museum of Art (website). October. Accessed October 2, 2018. www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/vege/hd_vege.htm.Google Scholar

Michelet, Jules. 1875. L’Insect. Edited by Curnow, Chris, Cosmas, Tom and Proofreaders, Distributed. London, November 26. Reproduced in e-book form in 2013.Google Scholar

Mir-Hosseini, Ziba. 1999. Islam and Gender: The Religious Debate in Contemporary Iran. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Mohamed, Abdi Ahmed. 2018. Interview by Michelle Apotsos (February 9).Google Scholar

Mohanty, Chandra Talpade. 1991. “Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses.” In Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism, edited by Mohanty, Chandra Talpade, Russo, Ann, and Torres, Lourdes, 51–80. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar

Mokhtar, Ahmed, and Ahmadi, Aminah Ali. 2005. Design Guidelines for Ablution Spaces in Mosques and Islamic Praying Facilities. Sharjah: American University of Sharjah.Google Scholar

Morris, Frances. 1921. “Prayer Rugs.” The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 16 (12): 252–255.Google Scholar

Morris, James, and Blier, Suzanne P.. 2004. Butabu: Adobe Architecture of West Africa. New York: Princeton Architectural Press.Google Scholar

Morris, Kadish. 2017. “Photographing Prayer Spaces in Airports Around the World.” AnOther Magazine. August 21. Accessed September 26, 2017. www.anothermag.com/art-photography/10094/photographing-prayer-spaces-in-airports-around-the-world.Google Scholar

Mortada, H. 2011. Traditional Islamic Principles of Built Environments. London: Routledge.Google Scholar

Myers, , Andrew, Garth. 1994. “Making the Socialist City of Zanzibar.” American Geographical Society 84 (4): 451–464.Google Scholar

Myers, , Andrew, Garth 1997. “Sticks and Stones: Colonialism and Zanzibari Housing.” Africa: Journal of the International African Institute 67 (2): 252–272.Google Scholar

Nabudere, Dan Wadada. 2001. “The African Renaissance in the Age of Globalization.” African Journal of Political Science 6 (2): 11–28.Google Scholar

Nageeb, Salma. 2007. “Appropriating the Mosque: Women’s Religious Groups in Khartoum.” Africa Spectrum 42 (1): 5–27.Google Scholar

Necipoğlu, Gülru. 1993. “Challenging the Past: Sinan and the Competitive Discourse of Early Modern Islamic Architecture.” Muqarnas 10: 169–180.Google Scholar

Necipoğlu, Gülru. 1995. The Topkapi Scroll: Geometry and Ornament in Islamic Architecture. Santa Monica: Getty Center for the History of Art and the Humanities.Google Scholar

Newman, James L. 1995. The Peopling of Africa: A Geographical Perspective. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar

Ngolola, Saidi. 2017. Interview by Michelle Apotsos (October 20).Google Scholar

Nice. 2018. Interview by Michelle Apotsos (April 2).Google Scholar

Nimtz, August H. 1980. Islam and Politics in East Africa: The Sufi Order in Tanzania. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar

Nooter, Nancy Ingram. 1984. “Zanzibar Doors.” African Arts 17 (4): 34–39; 96.Google Scholar

Noyes, James. 2013. The Politics of Iconoclasm: Religion, Violence, and the Culture of Image-Breaking in Christianity and Islam. London: I. B. Tauris.Google Scholar

Nuha, N. N. Khoury. 1998. “The Mihrab: From Text to Form.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 30 (1): 1–27.Google Scholar

Nuryanti, Wiendu. 1996. “Heritage and Postmodern Tourism.” Annals of Tourism Research 23 (2): 249–260.Google Scholar

Nuttall, Sarah. 2004. “City Forms and Writing the ‘Now’ in South Africa.” Journal of Southern African Studies 30 (4): 731–748.Google Scholar

O2 DA. 2018. “One Heart Foundation Orphanage and Children Eco-Village Published in Belgian Magazine Bouwkroniek.” O2 DA (website). January 19. Accessed September 23, 2019. www.o2designatelier.com/single-post/2018/01/19/Our-project-One-Heart-Foundation-Orphanage-and-Children%E2%80%99s-Orphanage-Center-published-in-Bouwkroniek-Magazine.Google Scholar

Oberauer, Norbert. 2008. “‘Fantastic Charities’: The Transformations of Waqf Practice in Colonial Zanzibar.” Islamic Law and Society 15 (3): 315–370.Google Scholar

Ohmoto-Frederick, Ayumi Clara. 2009. “Lyotard, Beckett, Duras, and the Postmodern Sublime (review).” Comparative Literature Studies 46 (3): 549–552.Google Scholar

Omer, Spahic. 2008. “Towards Understanding Islamic Architecture.” Islamic Studies 47 (4): 483–510.Google Scholar

Open Mosque. n.d. “Mission and Vision.” The Open Mosque (website). Accessed September 12, 2017. http://theopenmosque.co.za/mission-vision/.Google Scholar

Othman, Zulkeplee, Aird, Rosemary, and Buys, Laurie. 2015. “Privacy, Modesty, Hospitality, and the Design of Muslim Homes: A Literature Review.” Frontiers of Architectural Research 4 (1): 12–23.Google Scholar

Pallasmaa, Juhani. 2015. “Light, Silence, and Spirituality in Architecture and Art.” In Transcending Architecture, edited by Bermudez, Julio, 19–32. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press.Google Scholar

Patel, Samir S. 2014. “Stone Towns of the Swahili Coast.” Archaeology 67 (1): 42–49.Google Scholar

Pellizzi, Francesco. 2008. “Airports and Museums: New Frontiers of the Urban and Suburban.” RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics 53/54: 331–344.Google Scholar

Pellot, Brian. 2016. “Queer Muslims Find Solace and Solidarity at South Africa Retreat.” Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung (website). November 4. Accessed August 14, 2017. https://za.boell.org/2016/11/04/queer-muslims-find-solace-and-solidarity-south-africa-retreat.Google Scholar

Petersen, Andrew. 1999. Dictionary of Islamic Architecture. London: Routledge.Google Scholar

Picon, Antoine. 2004. “Architecture and the Virtual Towards a New Materiality.” PRAXIS: Journal of Writing + Building 6: 114–121.Google Scholar

Pietz, William. 1985. “The Problem of the Fetish, I.” RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics 9: 5–17.Google Scholar

Preziosi, David. 1979. The Semiotics of the Built Environment: An Introduction to Architectonic Analysis. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar

Price, Travis. 2015. “Architectural Quests into the Numinous.” In Transcending Architecture, edited by Bermudez, Julio, 247–255. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press.Google Scholar

Price, Zeena. 2016. “(Re)Configuring Ruin: The Sacred Poetics of Rubble in the Photography of Scott Hocking.” Master’s thesis. Radboud University.Google Scholar

Primiano, Leonard Norman. 1995. “Vernacular Religion and the Search for Method in Religious Folklife.” Western Folklore 54 (1): 37–56.Google Scholar

Prussin, Labelle. 1968. “The Architecture of Islam in West Africa.” African Arts 1 (2) (Winter): 32–35, 70–74.Google Scholar

Prussin, Labelle 1982. “West African Earthworks.” Art Journal 42 (3): 204–209.Google Scholar

Prussin, Labelle 1986. Hatumere: Islamic Design in West Africa. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Prussin, Labelle 1999. “Non-Western Sacred Sites: African Models.” The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 58 (3): 424–433.Google Scholar

Purkayastha, Bandana. 2012. “Intersectionality in a Transnational World.” Gender & Society 26 (1): 55–66.Google Scholar

Quadir, Tarik Masud. 2013. Traditional Islamic Environmentalism: The Vision of Seyyed Hossein Nasr. Lanham: University Press of America.Google Scholar

Quist-Arcton, Ofeibea. 2016. “If You Think This Bus Has an Eye on You, You’re Right.” All Things Considered (NPR) (website). March 20. Accessed September 23, 2019. www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2016/03/20/470951358/if-you-think-this-bus-has-an-eye-on-you-youre-right.Google Scholar

Rabbat, Nasser. 2002. “In the Beginning Was the House: On the Image of the Two Noble Sanctuaries of Islam.” Thresholds 25: 56–59.Google Scholar

Rainfoy, Claire. 2015. “A Fast Bus to the Museum: What the Bodywork of These Machines Says About the History of Senegal.” Jeune Afrique (website). August 18. Accessed August 2, 2017. www.jeuneafrique.com/256991/economie/rapide-disparait-de-circulation-entre-musee/.Google Scholar

Ray, Sarah Jaquette. 2013. The Ecological Other: Environmental Exclusion in American Culture. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.Google Scholar

Reals, Kerry. 2018. “Boeing’s Inflight Prayer Space Concept Catering to Religious Needs.” Aviation Week Network (website). February 28. Accessed September 25, 2019. https://aviationweek.com/aircraft-interiors/boeings-inflight-prayer-space-concept-catering-religious-needs.Google Scholar

Reaven, Marci, and Zeitlin, Steve. 2006. “Introduction: Urban Remembrance.” In Hidden New York: A Guide to Places That Matter, edited by Reaven, Marci and Zeitlin, Steve, 335–340. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar

Renard, John. 1996. “Comparative Religious Architecture: Islamic and Hindu Ritual Space.” Religion and the Arts 1 (3): 62–88.Google Scholar

Revault, Philippe, Santelli, Serge, Alessandri, Raphael, Ammi, Nadia, Bonnet-Chelhi, Nadege, Bosredon, Pauline, and Greiner, Emma. 2006. “Harar Jugol.” Nomination of Properties for Inclusion on the World Heritage List. Harari People’s National Regional State.Google Scholar

Rigopoulos, Antonio. 2014. “The Construction of a Cultic Center Through Narrative: The Founding Myth of the Village of Puttaparthi and Sathya Sāī Bābā.” History of Religions 54 (2): 117–150.Google Scholar

Rihouay, Francis. 2014. “Timbuktu Seeks Rebirth After Islamist Militants’ Destruction.” Bloomberg (website). March 31. Accessed September 20, 2014. www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-03-30/timbuktu-seeks-rebirth-after-destruction-by-islamist-militants.Google Scholar

Rizvi, Kishwar. 2015. The Transnational Mosque: Architecture and Historical Memory in the Contemporary Middle East. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar

Roberts, Allen F., and Roberts, Mary Nooter. 2002. “A Saint in the City Sufi Arts of Urban Senegal.” African Arts 35 (4): 52–96.Google Scholar

Ross, Eric. 2006. Sufi City: Urban Design and Archetypes in Touba. Suffolk: Boydell and Brewer.Google Scholar

Rowlands, Michael. 2007. “Entangled Memories and Parallel Heritages in Mali.” In Reclaiming Heritage: Alternative Imaginaries of Memory in West Africa, edited by de Jong, Ferdinand and Rowlands, Michael, 127–144. Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press.Google Scholar

Saine, Abdoulaye. 2011. “Islam and the ‘Global War on Terror’ in West Africa.” In Globalization and Sustainable Development in Africa, edited by House-Soremekun, Bessie and Falola, Toyin, 404–420. Rochester: University of Rochester Press.Google Scholar

Salvatore, Armando. 2015. “Modernity.” In Islamic Political Thought: An Introduction, edited by Bowering, Gerhard, 135–151. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Santelli, Serge, and Revault, Philippe. 2004. Harar: A Muslim City of Ethiopia/Harar: Une cité musulmane d’Éthiopie. Paris: Maison & Larose.Google Scholar

Schacht, Joseph. 1965. “Notes on Islam in East Africa.” Studia Islamica 23: 91–136.Google Scholar

Schroeder, Ralph, Heather, Noel, and Lee, Raymond M.. 1998. “The Sacred and the Virtual: Religion in Multi-User Virtual Reality.” Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 4 (2). http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1083-6101.1998.tb00092.x/full.Google Scholar

Seemungal, Martin. 2015. “Is Cape Town’s Women and Gay-Friendly Mosque a Sign of New Muslim Attitudes?” PBS News Hour (website). May 9. Accessed August 14, 2017. www.pbs.org/newshour/show/cape-towns-gay-women-friendly-mosque-sign-re-interpretation-muslim-faith.Google Scholar

Seibert, Thomas. 2015. “Turkey’s Mosque-Building Diplomacy.” Al-Monitor: The Pulse of the Middle East (website). February 13. Accessed September 21, 2019. www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/02/turkey-mosque-building-soft-power.html.Google Scholar

Selamta. 2018. “Cradle of Culture.” Selamta Magazine Jan.–Feb.: 38–53. https://www.selamtamagazine.com/stories/cradle-of-culture?_k=bWFtb0BldGhpb3Nwb3J0cy5jb206OjVhNGE0MmFmYjQ4NjI.Google Scholar

Shaikh, Sa’diyya. 2003. “Transforming Feminism: Islam, Women, and Gender Justice.” In Progressive Muslims: On Gender, Justice, and Pluralism, edited by Safi, Omid, 147–162. Oxford: Oneworld.Google Scholar

Sheller, Mimi. 2011. “Mobility.” Sociopedia. doi:10.1177/205684601163.Google Scholar

Sheller, Mimi, and Urry, John. 2006. “The New Mobilities Paradigm.” Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space 38 (2): 207–226.Google Scholar

Siregar, Kiki. 2016. “‘Mosque-Mobile’ Makes Praying Easier in Gridlocked Jakarta.” Business Insider (website). July 5. Accessed September 25, 2019. www.businessinsider.com/afp-mosque-mobile-makes-praying-easier-in-gridlocked-jakarta-2016-7.Google Scholar

Smith, Elta, and Bender, Courtney. 2004. “The Creation of Urban Niche Religion: South Asian Taxi Drivers in New York City.” In Asian American Religions: The Making and Remaking of Borders and Boundaries, edited by Carnes, Tony and Yang, Fenggang, 76–97. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar

Smith, Laurajane. 2010. Uses of Heritage. London: Routledge.Google Scholar

Solomon, Robert C. 1985. “On Kitsch and Sentimentality.” The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 49 (1): 1–14.Google Scholar

Sonn, Tamara. 1994. “Middle East and Islamic Studies in South Africa.” Middle East Studies Association Bulletin 28 (1): 14–17.Google Scholar

Sourdel, Dominique, Sourdel-Thomine, Janine, and Higgitt, Caroline. 2007. A Glossary of Islam. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar

Steadman, Philip. 2008. The Evolution of Designs: Biological Analogy in Architecture and the Applied Arts. London: Routledge.Google Scholar

Steele, James. 1997. Sustainable Architecture: Principles, Paradigms, and Case Studies. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar

Stieber, Nancy. 2003. “Editorial: Architecture Between Disciplines.” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 62 (2): 176–177.Google Scholar

Stifin, P. 2012. “The Resonating Voice: Materialities of Testimony at Ground Zero.” Presentation to The Cultural Studies Association General Meeting, San Diego, March.Google Scholar

Strom, Karen M. n.d. “Puye Cliff Dwellings: A Project of the Santa Clara Indian Pueblo.” Puye Cliff Dwellings Walking Tour Brochure. Accessed April 23, 2018. www.hanksville.org/voyage/misc/puye.html.Google Scholar

Tabbaa, Yasser. 1985. “The Muqarnas Dome: Its Origin and Meaning.” Muqarnas 3: 61–74.Google Scholar

Tacq, Filiep. 2003. Proceeding #1: The Dakar Car Rapide – An Endangered Species. Maastricht: Jan van Eyck Academie.Google Scholar

Taleb, Nasseema. 2005. “Muslim Identity and Gated Community Development in Durban.” Master’s thesis. University of KwaZulu Natal.Google Scholar

Tarsitani, Belle Asante. 2009. “Revered Vessels: Custom and Innovation in Harari Basketry.” African Arts 42 (1): 64–75.Google Scholar

Taussig, Michael. 2012. “Iconoclasm Dictionary.” TDR: The Drama Review 56 (1): 10–17.Google Scholar

Tayob, Abdulkader. 1999. Islam in South Africa: Mosques, Imams, and Sermons. Gainesville: University of Florida Press.Google Scholar

Tayob, Abdulkader 2011. “Islam and Democracy in South Africa.” Focus: The Journal of the Helen Suzman Foundation 62: 20–24.Google Scholar

TGBC. n.d. “About the Tanzania Green Building Council.” Tanzania Green Building Council (website). Accessed November 16, 2016. http://tzgbc.com/.Google Scholar

Tharoor, Ishaan. 2012. “Timbuktu’s Destruction: Why Islamists Are Wrecking Mali’s Cultural Heritage.” Time. July 2. Accessed August 7, 2019. http://world.time.com/2012/07/02/timbuktus-destruction-why-islamists-are-wrecking-malis-cultural-heritage/.Google Scholar

Thomassen, Bjørn. 2009. “The Uses and Meanings of Liminality.” International Political Anthropology 2 (1): 5–27.Google Scholar

Thomassen, Bjørn 2012. “Timbuktu Shrine Destruction a ‘War Crime.’” The Telegraph. July 2. Accessed September 2, 2016. www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/mali/9369271/Timbuktu-shrine-destruction-a-war-crime.html.Google Scholar

Tonna, J. O. 1990. “The Poetics of Arabo-Islamic Architecture.” Muqarnas 7: 182–197.Google Scholar

Traoré, Madou. 2018. Interview by Michelle Apotsos (April 9).Google Scholar

Turner, Simon. 2009. “‘These Young Men Show No Respect for Local Customs’: Globalization and Islamic Revival in Zanzibar.” Journal of Religion in Africa 39 (3): 237–261.Google Scholar

Turner, Victor, and Turner, Edith. 1978. Image and Pilgrimage in Christian Culture. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar

UNESCO. n.d.a. “Harar Jugol, the Fortified Historic Town.” UNESCO (website). Accessed August 24, 2017. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1189/.Google Scholar

UNESCO n.d.b. “Safeguarding Project of Hassan Fathy’s New Gourna Village.” UNESCO (website). Accessed January 14, 2019. https://whc.unesco.org/en/activities/637/.Google Scholar

Urry, John, and Larsen, Jonas. 2011. The Tourist Gaze 3.0. London: SAGE Publications.Google Scholar

van der Hoorn, Melanie. 2009. Indispensable Eyesores: An Anthropology of Undesired Buildings. New York: Berghahn Books.Google Scholar

Vellinga, Marcel. 2006. “The Inventiveness of Tradition: Vernacular Architecture and the Future.” Perspectives in Vernacular Architecture 13 (2): 115–128.Google Scholar

Vered, Amit, and Garsten, Christina. 2015. “The East as a Complex Religious Field.” In Checkpoint, Temple, Church and Mosque: A Collaborative Ethnography of War and Peace, edited by Spencer, Jonathan, Goodhand, Jonathan, Hasbullah, Shahul, Klem, Bart, and Korf, Benedikt, 20–44. London: Pluto Press.Google Scholar

Verkaaik, Oskar. 2013. Religious Architecture: Anthropological Perspectives. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.Google Scholar

Visit 2 Ethiopia Tourism Marketing and Promotions. 2015. “Harar.” Visit 2 Ethiopia Tourism Marketing and Promotions. Addis Ababa.Google Scholar

Walker, Bethany J. 2004. “Commemorating the Sacred Spaces of the Past: The Mamluks and the Umayyad Mosque at Damascus.” Near Eastern Archaeology 67 (1): 26–39.Google Scholar

Warren, Karen J. 2015. “Feminist Environmental Philosophy.” In Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Zalta, Edward N.. Summer. Accessed April 15, 2019. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-environmental/.Google Scholar

Watson, Donald. 2001. “Environment and Architecture.” In Discipline of Architecture, edited by Piotrowski, Andrzej and Williams Robinson, Julia, 158–172. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar

Weisenfeld, Gennifer. 2012. Imaging Disaster: Tokyo and the Visual Culture of Japan’s Great Earthquake of 1923. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Wellington, Nii-Adziri. 2017. “Crises in Contesting Identities in Islamic Sacral Architecture: A Reflection on the Hagia Sophia in Accra, Ghana.” Paper presented at the 17th Triennial Symposium of African Art, held at the Institute of African Studies, University of Ghana, Legon, August 8–13.Google Scholar

Wilhelm-Solomon, Matthew, Núñez, Lorena, Kankonde, Peter, and Malcomess, Bettina. 2017. “Routes and Rites to the City: Introduction.” In Routes and Rites to the City: Mobility, Diversity and Religious Space in Johannesburg, edited by Wilhelm-Solomon, Matthew, Núñez, Lorena, Kankonde Bukasa, Peter, and Malcomess, Bettina, 1–30. London: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar

William, F. A. Miles. 2004. “Conclusions.” African Studies Review 47 (2): 109–117.Google Scholar

Women’s Environment and Development Organization. 2013. “Prioritizing the Intersection of Women’s Rights and Empowerment, Gender Equality, and Sustainable Development.” Women’s Environment and Development Organization. January 6. Accessed February 13, 2019. https://wedo.org/prioritizing-the-intersection-of-womens-rights-and-empowerment-gender-equality-and-sustainable-development/.Google Scholar

Wright, Richard, and Ellis, Mark. 2016. “Perspectives on Migration Theory: Geography.” In International Handbook of Migration and Population Distribution, edited by White, Michael J., 11–30. Dordrecht: Springer.Google Scholar

Wynne-Jones, Stephanie. 2010. “Remembering and Reworking the Swahili Diwanate: The Role of Objects and Places at Vumba Kuu.” The International Journal of African Historical Studies 43 (3): 407–427.Google Scholar

Zbidi, Monika. 2013. “A Call to Eco-Jihad.” Environment and Ecology (website). Accessed February 23, 2017. http://environment-ecology.com/religion-and-ecology/738-the-call-to-eco-jihad.html.Google Scholar

Zeleke, Meron. 2014. “‘We Are the Same but Different’: Accounts of Ethiopian Orthodox Christian Adherents of Islamic Sufi Saints.” Journal for the Study of Religion 27 (2): 195–213.Google Scholar