Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7czq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T10:03:15.477Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Part II - The Changing Face of Cannabis

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 May 2023

Deepak Cyril D'Souza
Affiliation:
Staff Psychiatrist, VA Connecticut Healthcare System; Professor of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine
David Castle
Affiliation:
University of Tasmania, Australia
Sir Robin Murray
Affiliation:
Honorary Consultant Psychiatrist, Psychosis Service at the South London and Maudsley NHS Trust; Professor of Psychiatric Research at the Institute of Psychiatry
Get access

Summary

Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2023

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References

American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed. Virginia: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th ed. Virginia: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Anthony, J. C., Warner, L. A., and Kessler, R. C. (1994). Comparative epidemiology of dependence on tobacco, alcohol, controlled substances, and inhalants: Basic findings from the National Comorbidity Survey. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol, 2, 244268.Google Scholar
Asbridge, M., Hayden, J. A., and Cartwright, J. L. (2012). Acute cannabis consumption and motor vehicle collision risk: Systematic review of observational studies and meta-analysis. BMJ, 344, e536.Google Scholar
Azofeifa, A., Mattson, M. E., Schauer, G., et al. (2016). National estimates of marijuana use and related indicators: National Survey on Drug Use and Health, United States, 2002–2014. Morbid Mortal Week Rep (MMWR), 65, 128.Google Scholar
Benedetti, E., Resce, G., Brunori, P., et al. (2021). Cannabis policy changes and adolescent cannabis use: Evidence from Europe. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 18, 5174.Google Scholar
Bollom, A., Austrie, J., Hirsch, W., et al. (2018). Emergency department burden of nausea and vomiting associated with cannabis use disorder: US trends from 2006 to 2013. J Clin Gastroenterol, 52, 778783.Google Scholar
Bonn-Miller, M. O., Harris, A. H., and Trafton, J. A. (2012). Prevalence of cannabis use disorder diagnoses among veterans in 2002, 2008, and 2009. Psychol Serv, 9, 404416.Google Scholar
Brady, J. E., and Li, G. (2014). Trends in alcohol and other drugs detected in fatally injured drivers in the United States, 1999–2010. Am J Epidemiol, 179, 692699.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carliner, H., Mauro, P. M., Brown, Q. L., et al. (2017). The widening gender gap in marijuana use prevalence in the U.S. during a period of economic change, 2002–2014. Drug Alcohol Depend, 170, 5158.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2015). International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM). Available at: www.cdc.gov/nchs/icd/icd9cm.htm (Last accessed 17 October 2021).Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021). International Classification of Diseases, 10th Revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-10-CM). Available at: www.cdc.gov/nchs/icd/icd10cm.htm (Last accessed 17 October 2021).Google Scholar
Chan, G., Chiu, V., Sun, T., et al. (2021). Age-related trends in cannabis use in Australia. Findings from a series of large nationally representative surveys. Addict Behav, 123, 107059.Google Scholar
Charilaou, P., Agnihotri, K., Garcia, P., et al. (2017). Trends of cannabis use disorder in the inpatient: 2002 to 2011. Am J Med, 130, 678687 e7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Compton, W. M., Grant, B. F., Colliver, J. D., et al. (2004). Prevalence of marijuana use disorders in the United States: 1991–1992 and 2001–2002. JAMA, 291, 21142121.Google Scholar
Compton, W. M., Han, B., Jones, C. M., et al. (2016). Marijuana use and use disorders in adults in the USA, 2002–14: Analysis of annual cross-sectional surveys. Lancet Psychiatry, 3, 954964.Google Scholar
Compton, W. M., Han, B., Jones, C. M., et al. (2019). Cannabis use disorders among adults in the United States during a time of increasing use of cannabis. Drug Alcohol Depend, 204, 107468.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Degenhardt, L., & Hall, W. (2012). Extent of illicit drug use and dependence, and their contribution to the global burden of disease. Lancet, 379, 5570.Google Scholar
Denis, C. M., Gelernter, J., Hart, A. B., et al. (2015). Inter-observer reliability of DSM-5 substance use disorders. Drug Alcohol Depend, 153, 229235.Google Scholar
Englund, A., Freeman, T. P., Murray, R. M., et al. (2017). Can we make cannabis safer? Lancet Psychiatry, 4, 643648.Google Scholar
Gajendran, M., Sifuentes, J., Bashashati, M., et al. (2020). Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome: Definition, pathophysiology, clinical spectrum, insights into acute and long-term management. J Invest Med, 68, 13091316.Google Scholar
Ghasemiesfe, M., Ravi, D., Vali, M., et al. (2018). Marijuana use, respiratory symptoms, and pulmonary function: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med, 169, 106115.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodman, S., Wadsworth, E., Leos-Toro, C., et al. (2020). Prevalence and forms of cannabis use in legal vs. illegal recreational cannabis markets. Int J Drug Policy, 76, 102658.Google Scholar
Grant, B. F. (1996). Prevalence and correlates of drug use and DSM-IV drug dependence in the United States: Results of the National Longitudinal Alcohol Epidemiologic Survey. J Subst Abuse, 8, 195210.Google Scholar
Grant, B. F. (1997). Prevalence and correlates of alcohol use and DSM-IV alcohol dependence in the United States: Results of the National Longitudinal Alcohol Epidemiologic Survey. J Stud Alcohol, 58, 464473.Google Scholar
Grant, B. F., Chu, A., Sigman, R., et al. (2014). Source and Accuracy Statement: National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions-III (NESARC-III). Rockville, MD: National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. Available at: www.niaaa.nih.gov/sites/default/files/NESARC_Final_Report_FINAL_1_8_15.pdf (Last accessed 10 October 2021).Google Scholar
Grant, B. F., Goldstein, R. B., Saha, T. D., et al. (2015a). Epidemiology of DSM-5 alcohol use disorder: Results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions III. JAMA Psychiatry, 72, 757766.Google Scholar
Grant, B. F., Goldstein, R. B., Smith, S. M., et al. (2015b). The Alcohol Use Disorder and Associated Disabilities Interview Schedule-5 (AUDADIS-5): Reliability of substance use and psychiatric disorder modules in a general population sample. Drug Alcohol Depend, 148, 2733.Google Scholar
Grant, B. F., Moore, T. C., Shepard, J., et al. (2003). Source and Accuracy Statement: Wave 1 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC). Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.Google Scholar
Grant, B. F., Stinson, F. S., Dawson, D. A., et al. (2004). Prevalence and co-occurrence of substance use disorders and independent mood and anxiety disorders: Results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 61, 807816.Google Scholar
Grucza, R. A., Agrawal, A., Krauss, M. J., et al. (2016a). Declining prevalence of marijuana use disorders among adolescents in the United States, 2002 to 2013. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 55, 487494 e6.Google Scholar
Grucza, R. A., Agrawal, A., Krauss, M. J., et al. (2016b). Recent trends in the prevalence of marijuana use and associated disorders in the United States. JAMA Psychiatry, 73, 300301.Google Scholar
Gutkind, S., Fink, D. S., Shmulewitz, D., et al. Psychosocial and health problems associated with alcohol use disorder and cannabis use disorder in U.S. adults. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2021 Dec 1;229(Pt B):109137.Google Scholar
Hall, W., and Degenhardt, L. (2009). Adverse health effects of non-medical cannabis use. Lancet, 374, 13831391.Google Scholar
Han, B., Compton, W. M., Jones, C. M., et al. (2017). Cannabis use and cannabis use disorders among youth in the United States, 2002–2014. J Clin Psychiatry, 78, 14041413.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hartman, R. L., Brown, T. L., Milavetz, G., et al. (2015) Cannabis effects on driving lateral control with and without alcohol. Drug Alcohol Depend, 154, 2537.Google Scholar
Hartman, R. L., and Huestis, M. A. (2013). Cannabis effects on driving skills. Clin Chem, 59, 478492.Google Scholar
Hasin, D., Samet, S., Nunes, E., et al. (2006). Diagnosis of comorbid psychiatric disorders in substance users assessed with the Psychiatric Research Interview for Substance and Mental Disorders for DSM-IV. Am J Psychiatry, 163, 689696.Google Scholar
Hasin, D., Shmulewitz, D., Stohl, M., et al. (2020). Test–retest reliability of DSM-5 substance disorder measures as assessed with the PRISM-5, a clinician-administered diagnostic interview. Drug Alcohol Depend, 216, 108294.Google Scholar
Hasin, D. S., and Aharonovich, E. (2020). Implications of medical and recreational marijuana laws for neuroscience research: A review. Curr Behav Neurosci Rep, 7, 258266.Google Scholar
Hasin, D. S., Greenstein, E., Aivadyan, C., et al. (2015a) The Alcohol Use Disorder and Associated Disabilities Interview Schedule-5 (AUDADIS-5): Procedural validity of substance use disorders modules through clinical re-appraisal in a general population sample. Drug Alcohol Depend, 148, 4046.Google Scholar
Hasin, D. S., Kerridge, B. T., Saha, T. D., et al. (2016). Prevalence and correlates of DSM-5 cannabis use disorder, 2012–2013: Findings from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions-III. Am J Psychiatry, 173, 588599.Google Scholar
Hasin, D. S., O’Brien, C. P., Auriacombe, M., et al. (2013). DSM-5 criteria for substance use disorders: Recommendations and rationale. Am J Psychiatry, 170, 834851.Google Scholar
Hasin, D. S., Saha, T. D., Kerridge, B. T., et al. (2015b). Prevalence of marijuana use disorders in the United States between 2001–2002 and 2012–2013. JAMA Psychiatry, 72, 12351242.Google Scholar
Johnston, L. D., Miech, R. A., O’Malley, P. M., et al. (2020). Demographic Subgroup Trends among Adolescents in the Use of Various Licit and Illicit Drugs, 1975–2019. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan. Available at: www.monitoringthefuture.org/pubs/occpapers/mtf-occ94.pdf (Last accessed 17 October 2021).Google Scholar
Kerr, W. C., Lui, C., and Ye, Y. (2018). Trends and age, period and cohort effects for marijuana use prevalence in the 1984–2015 US National Alcohol Surveys. Addiction, 113, 473481.Google Scholar
Koob, G. F., and Le Moal, M. (2001). Drug addiction, dysregulation of reward, and allostasis. Neuropsychopharmacology, 24, 97129.Google Scholar
Lenne, M. G., Dietze, P. M., Triggs, T. J., et al. (2010). The effects of cannabis and alcohol on simulated arterial driving: Influences of driving experience and task demand. Accid Anal Prev, 42, 859866.Google Scholar
Leung, J., Chan, G. C. K., Hides, L., et al. (2020). What is the prevalence and risk of cannabis use disorders among people who use cannabis? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Addict Behav, 109, 106479.Google Scholar
Li, M. C., Brady, J. E., DiMaggio, C. J., et al. (2012). Marijuana use and motor vehicle crashes. Epidemiol Rev, 34, 6572.Google Scholar
Livne, O., Shmulewitz, D., Lev-Ran, S., et al. (2019). DSM-5 cannabis withdrawal syndrome: Demographic and clinical correlates in U.S. adults. Drug Alcohol Depend, 195, 170177.Google Scholar
Manthey, J. (2019). Cannabis use in Europe: Current trends and public health concerns. Int J Drug Policy, 68, 9396.Google Scholar
McKay, M. P., and Groff, L. (2016). 23 years of toxicology testing fatally injured pilots: Implications for aviation and other modes of transportation. Accid Anal Prev, 90, 108117.Google Scholar
Miech, R. A., Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., et al. (2021). Monitoring the Future National Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975–2020: Volume I, Secondary School Students. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan. Available at: www.monitoringthefuture.org/pubs/monographs/mtf-vol1_2020.pdf (Last accessed 17 October 2021).Google Scholar
Miech, R. A., Patrick, M. E., O’Malley, P. M., et al. (2020). Trends in reported marijuana vaping among US adolescents, 2017–2019. JAMA, 323, 475476.Google Scholar
Millar, S. R., Mongan, D., O’Dwyer, C., et al. (2021). Correlates of patterns of cannabis use, abuse and dependence: Evidence from two national surveys in Ireland. Eur J Public Health, 31, 441447.Google Scholar
National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2021). Monitoring the Future. Available at: www.drugabuse.gov/drug-topics/trends-statistics/monitoring-future (Last accessed 18 October 2021).Google Scholar
Naveed, S., Waqas, A., Chaudhary, A. M. D., et al. (2020). Prevalence of common mental disorders in south Asia: A systematic review and meta-regression analysis. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11, 573150.Google Scholar
O’Neill-Dee, C., Spiller, H. A., Casavant, M. J., et al. (2020). Natural psychoactive substance-related exposures reported to United States poison control centers, 2000–2017. Clin Toxicol, 58, 813820.Google Scholar
OECD and The World Bank. (2020). Health at a Glance: Latin America and the Caribbean 2020. Available at: www.oecd-ilibrary.org/content/publication/6089164f-en (Last accessed 22 October 2021).Google Scholar
Public Health England, Home Office, Welsh Government, The Scottish Government, Public Health Wales & Department of Health (Northern Ireland). (2021). United Kingdom Drug Situation: Focal Point annual report. Available at: www.gov.uk/government/publications/united-kingdom-drug-situation-focal-point-annual-report (Last accessed 22 October 2021).Google Scholar
Richards, J. R. (2018). Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome: Pathophysiology and treatment in the emergency department. J Emerg Med, 54, 354363.Google Scholar
Rigucci, S., Marques, T. R., Di Forti, M., et al. (2016). Effect of high-potency cannabis on corpus callosum microstructure. Psychol Med, 46, 841854.Google Scholar
Rogeberg, O., and Elvik, R. (2016). The effects of cannabis intoxication on motor vehicle collision revisited and revised. Addiction, 111, 13481359.Google Scholar
Santaella-Tenorio, J., Levy, N. S., Segura, L. E., et al. (2019). Cannabis use disorder among people using cannabis daily/almost daily in the United States, 2002–2016. Drug Alcohol Depend, 205, 107621.Google Scholar
Sarvet, A. L., Wall, M. M., Keyes, K. M., et al. (2018). Recent rapid decrease in adolescents’ perception that marijuana is harmful, but no concurrent increase in use. Drug Alcohol Depend, 186, 6874.Google Scholar
Shi, Y. (2017). Medical marijuana policies and hospitalizations related to marijuana and opioid pain reliever. Drug Alcohol Depend, 173, 144150.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Singh, J. A. (2022). Time-trends in hospitalizations with cannabis use disorder: A 17-year U.S. national study. Subst Abus, 43, 408414.Google Scholar
Sofuoglu, M., Sugarman, D. E., and Carroll, K. M. (2010). Cognitive function as an emerging treatment target for marijuana addiction. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol, 18, 109119.Google Scholar
Strand, M. C., Gjerde, H., and Morland, J. (2016). Driving under the influence of non-alcohol drugs: An update. Part II: Experimental studies. Forensic Sci Rev, 28, 79101.Google Scholar
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2020). 2019 NSDUH Detailed Tables. Available at: www.samhsa.gov/data/report/2019-nsduh-detailed-tables (Last accessed 15 October 2021).Google Scholar
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2020). UNODC World Drug Report 2020: Global Drug Use Rising; while COVID-19 Has Far Reaching Impact on Global Drug Markets. Vienna: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.Google Scholar
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2021). World Drug Report 2021. Available at: www.unodc.org/res/wdr2021/field/WDR21_Booklet_3.pdf (Last accessed 17 October 2021).Google Scholar
University of Michigan. (2021). Monitoring the Future. Available at: www.monitoringthefuture.org/ (Last accessed 17 October 2021).Google Scholar
Volkow, N. D., Swanson, J. M., Evins, A. E., et al. (2016). Effects of cannabis use on human behavior, including cognition, motivation, and psychosis: A review. JAMA Psychiatry, 73, 292297.Google Scholar
Wadsworth, E., and Hammond, D. (2019). International differences in patterns of cannabis use among youth: Prevalence, perceptions of harm, and driving under the influence in Canada, England & United States. Addict Behav, 90, 171175.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watson, T. M., and Mann, R. E. (2016). International approaches to driving under the influence of cannabis: A review of evidence on impact. Drug Alcohol Depend, 169, 148155.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
World Health Organization. (2016). International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 10th ed. Available at: https://icd.who.int/browse10/2016/en (Last accessed 15 October 2021).Google Scholar
World Health Organization. (2021). Cannabis. Available at: www.who.int/teams/mental-health-and-substance-use/alcohol-drugs-and-addictive-behaviours/drugs-psychoactive/cannabis (Last accessed 17 October 2021).Google Scholar
Zhu, H., and Wu, L. T. (2016). Trends and correlates of cannabis-involved emergency department visits: 2004 to 2011. J Addict Med, 10, 429436.Google Scholar

References

Arterberry, B. J., Padovano, H. T., Foster, K. T., et al. (2019). Higher average potency across the United States is associated with progression to first cannabis use disorder symptom. Drug Alcohol Depend, 195, 186192.Google Scholar
Barrus, D. G., Capogrossi, K. L., Cates, S. C., et al. (2016). Tasty THC: Promises and challenges of cannabis edibles. Methods Rep RTI Press, 10.3768.Google Scholar
Bergamaschi, M. M., Queiroz, R. H. C., Chagas, M. H. N., et al. (2011). Cannabidiol reduces the anxiety induced by simulated public speaking in treatment-naive social phobia patients. Neuropsychopharmacology, 36, 12191226.Google Scholar
Budney, A. J., Sargent, J. D., and Lee, D. C. (2015). Vaping cannabis (marijuana): Parallel concerns to e-cigs? Addiction, 110, 16991704.Google Scholar
Burgdorf, J. R., Kilmer, B., and Pacula, R. L. (2011). Heterogeneity in the composition of marijuana seized in California. Drug Alcohol Depend, 117, 5961.Google Scholar
Chandra, S., Radwan, M. M., Majumdar, C. G., et al. (2019). New trends in cannabis potency in USA and Europe during the last decade (2008–2017). Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci, 269, 515.Google Scholar
Chouvy, P.-A., and Afsahi, K. (2014). Hashish revival in Morocco. Int J Drug Policy, 25, 416423.Google Scholar
Craft, S., Winstock, A., Ferris, J., et al. (2020). Characterising heterogeneity in the use of different cannabis products: Latent class analysis with 55 000 people who use cannabis and associations with severity of cannabis dependence. Psychol Med, 50, 23642373.Google Scholar
Curran, V. H., Brignell, C., Fletcher, S., et al. (2002). Cognitive and subjective dose–response effects of acute oral Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in infrequent cannabis users. Psychopharmacology, 164, 6170.Google Scholar
D’Souza, D. C., Perry, E., MacDougall, L., et al. (2004). The psychotomimetic effects of intravenous delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in healthy individuals: Implications for psychosis. Neuropsychopharmacology, 29, 15581572.Google Scholar
Davenport, S. (2021). Price and product variation in Washington’s recreational cannabis market. Int J Drug Policy, 91, 102547.Google Scholar
De Meijer, E. P., Bagatta, M., Carboni, A., et al. (2003). The inheritance of chemical phenotype in Cannabis sativa L. Genetics, 163, 335346.Google Scholar
Di Forti, M., Marconi, A., Carra, E., et al. (2015). Proportion of patients in south London with first-episode psychosis attributable to use of high potency cannabis: A case-control study. Lancet Psychiatry, 2, 233238.Google Scholar
Di Forti, M., Quattrone, D., Freeman, T. P., et al. (2019). The contribution of cannabis use to variation in the incidence of psychotic disorder across Europe (EU-GEI): A multicentre case-control study. Lancet Psychiatry, 6, 427436.Google Scholar
Di Forti, M., Sallis, H., Allegri, F., et al. (2014). Daily use, especially of high-potency cannabis, drives the earlier onset of psychosis in cannabis users. Schizophr Bull, 40, 15091517.Google Scholar
Dujourdy, L., and Besacier, F. (2017). A study of cannabis potency in France over a 25 years period (1992–2016). Forensic Sci Int, 272, 7280.Google Scholar
ElSohly, M. A., Chandra, S., Radwan, M., et al. (2021). A comprehensive review of cannabis potency in the United States in the last decade. Biol Psychiatry: Cogn Neurosci Neuroimag, 6, 603606.Google Scholar
ElSohly, M. A., Mehmedic, Z., Foster, S., et al. (2016). Changes in cannabis potency over the last 2 decades (1995–2014): Analysis of current data in the United States. Biol Psychiatry, 79, 613619.Google Scholar
EMCDDA. (2019). European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Developments in the European Cannabis Market. Lisbon: EMCDDA Papers, Issue.Google Scholar
Freeman, A. M., Petrilli, K., Lees, R., et al. (2019). How does cannabidiol (CBD) influence the acute effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in humans? A systematic review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 107, 696712.Google Scholar
Freeman, T., and Winstock, A. (2015). Examining the profile of high-potency cannabis and its association with severity of cannabis dependence. Psychol Med, 45, 31813189.Google Scholar
Freeman, T. P., Craft, S., Wilson, J., et al. (2021). Changes in delta‐9‐tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) concentrations in cannabis over time: Systematic review and meta‐analysis. Addiction, 116, 10001010.Google Scholar
Freeman, T. P., Groshkova, T., Cunningham, A., et al. (2019). Increasing potency and price of cannabis in Europe, 2006–16. Addiction, 114, 10151023.Google Scholar
Freeman, T. P., Hindocha, C., Baio, G., et al. (2020). Cannabidiol for the treatment of cannabis use disorder: A phase 2a, double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomised, adaptive Bayesian trial. Lancet Psychiatry, 7, 865874.Google Scholar
Freeman, T. P., and Lorenzetti, V. (2020). ‘Standard THC units’: A proposal to standardize dose across all cannabis products and methods of administration. Addiction, 115, 12071216.Google Scholar
Freeman, T. P., Morgan, C. J., Hindocha, C., et al. (2014). Just say ‘know’: How do cannabinoid concentrations influence users’ estimates of cannabis potency and the amount they roll in joints? Addiction, 109, 16861694.Google Scholar
Freeman, T. P., van der Pol, P., Kuijpers, W., et al. (2018). Changes in cannabis potency and first-time admissions to drug treatment: A 16-year study in the Netherlands. Psychol Med, 48, 23462352.Google Scholar
Hines, L. A., Freeman, T. P., Gage, S. H., et al. (2020). Association of high-potency cannabis use with mental health and substance use in adolescence. JAMA Psychiatry, 77, 10441051.Google Scholar
Hurd, Y. L., Spriggs, S., Alishayev, J., et al. (2019). Cannabidiol for the reduction of cue-induced craving and anxiety in drug-abstinent individuals with heroin use disorder: A double-blind randomized placebo-controlled trial. Am J Psychiatry, 176, 911922.Google Scholar
Jikomes, N., and Zoorob, M. (2018). The cannabinoid content of legal cannabis in Washington State varies systematically across testing facilities and popular consumer products. Sci Rep, 8, 4519.Google Scholar
Leung, J., Stjepanović, D., Dawson, D., et al. (2021). Do cannabis users reduce their THC dosages when using more potent cannabis products? A review. Front Psychiatry, 12, 163.Google Scholar
Leweke, F., Piomelli, D., Pahlisch, F., et al. (2012). Cannabidiol enhances anandamide signaling and alleviates psychotic symptoms of schizophrenia. Translat Psychiatry, 2, e94.Google Scholar
Loflin, M., and Earleywine, M. (2014). A new method of cannabis ingestion: The dangers of dabs? Addict Behav, 39, 14301433.Google Scholar
Mahamad, S., Wadsworth, E., Rynard, V., et al. (2020). Availability, retail price and potency of legal and illegal cannabis in Canada after recreational cannabis legalisation. Drug Alcohol Rev, 39, 337346.Google Scholar
McGuire, P., Robson, P., Cubala, W. J., et al. (2018). Cannabidiol (CBD) as an adjunctive therapy in schizophrenia: A multicenter randomized controlled trial. Am J Psychiatry, 175, 225231.Google Scholar
Meacher, M., Nutt, D., Liebling, J., et al. (2019). Should the supply of cannabis be legalised now? BMJ, 366, l4473.Google Scholar
Mehmedic, Z., Chandra, S., Slade, D., et al. (2010). Potency trends of Δ9‐THC and other cannabinoids in confiscated cannabis preparations from 1993 to 2008. J Forensic Sci, 55, 12091217.Google Scholar
Meier, M. H. (2017). Associations between butane hash oil use and cannabis-related problems. Drug Alcohol Depend, 179, 2531.Google Scholar
NIDA. (2021). Establishing 5 mg of THC as the Standard Unit for Research. Available at: https://nida.nih.gov/about-nida/noras-blog/2021/05/establishing-5mg-thc-standard-unit-research. Last accessed 18 March 2022.Google Scholar
Niesink, R. J., Rigter, S., Koeter, M. W., et al. (2015). Potency trends of Δ9‐tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol and cannabinol in cannabis in the Netherlands: 2005–15. Addiction, 110, 19411950.Google Scholar
Pijlman, F., Rigter, S., Hoek, J., et al. (2005). Strong increase in total delta‐THC in cannabis preparations sold in Dutch coffee shops. Addict Biol, 10, 171180.Google Scholar
Pitts, J., O’Neil, P., and Leggo, K. (1990). Survey variation in the THC content of illicitly imported cannabis* products: 1984–1989. J Pharm Pharmacol, 42, 817820.Google Scholar
van der Pol, P., Liebregts, N., Brunt, T., et al. (2014). Cross‐sectional and prospective relation of cannabis potency, dosing and smoking behaviour with cannabis dependence: An ecological study. Addiction, 109, 11011109.Google Scholar
Potter, D. J., Clark, P., and Brown, M. B. (2008). Potency of Δ9–THC and other cannabinoids in cannabis in England in 2005: Implications for psychoactivity and pharmacology. J Forensic Sci, 53, 9094.Google Scholar
Potter, D. J., Hammond, K., Tuffnell, S., et al. (2018). Potency of Δ9–tetrahydrocannabinol and other cannabinoids in cannabis in England in 2016: Implications for public health and pharmacology. Drug Test Anal, 10, 628635.Google Scholar
Poulsen, H., and Sutherland, G. (2000). The potency of cannabis in New Zealand from 1976 to 1996. Sci Justice, 40, 171176.Google Scholar
Rømer Thomsen, K., Lindholst, C., Thylstrup, B., et al. (2019). Changes in the composition of cannabis from 2000–2017 in Denmark: Analysis of confiscated samples of cannabis resin. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol, 27, 402.Google Scholar
Schoeler, T., Petros, N., Di Forti, M., et al. (2016). Effects of continuation, frequency, and type of cannabis use on relapse in the first 2 years after onset of psychosis: An observational study. Lancet Psychiatry, 3, 947953.Google Scholar
Sevigny, E. L. (2013). Is today’s marijuana more potent simply because it’s fresher? Drug Test Anal, 5, 6267.Google Scholar
Smart, R., Caulkins, J. P., Kilmer, B., et al. (2017). Variation in cannabis potency and prices in a newly legal market: Evidence from 30 million cannabis sales in Washington state. Addiction, 112, 21672177.Google Scholar
Taura, F., Sirikantaramas, S., Shoyama, Y., et al. (2007). Cannabidiolic-acid synthase, the chemotype-determining enzyme in the fiber-type Cannabis sativa. FEBS Lett, 581, 29292934.Google Scholar
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2009). Recommended Methods for the Identification and Analysis of Cannabis and Cannabis Products (revised and updated): Manual for Use By National Drug Analysis Laboratories. New York: United Nations Publications.Google Scholar
Vandrey, R., Raber, J. C., Raber, M. E., et al. (2015). Cannabinoid dose and label accuracy in edible medical cannabis products. JAMA, 313, 24912493.Google Scholar
Zamengo, L., Frison, G., Bettin, C., et al. (2014). Cannabis potency in the Venice area (Italy): Update 2013. Drug Test Anal, 7, 255258.Google Scholar
Zuardi, A. W., Rodrigues, N. P., Silva, A. L., et al. (2017). Inverted U-shaped dose-response curve of the anxiolytic effect of cannabidiol during public speaking in real life. Front Pharmacol, 8, 259.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

References

Angrist, B., Sathananthan, G., Wilk, S., et al. (1974). Amphetamine psychosis: Behavioral and biochemical aspects. J Psychiatric Res, 11, 1323.Google Scholar
Arseneault, L., Cannon, M., Poulton, R., et al. (2002). Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: Longitudinal prospective study. BMJ, 325, 12121213.Google Scholar
Arunogiri, S., Foulds, J. A., McKetin, R., et al. (2018). A systematic review of risk factors for methamphetamine-associated psychosis. Aust NZ J Psychiatry, 52, 514529.Google Scholar
Atkinson, D. L., and Abbott, J. K. (2018). Cannabinoids and the brain: The effects of endogenous and exogenous cannabinoids on brain systems and function. In: Compton, M. T., and Manseau, M. W. (eds.) The Complex Connection between Cannabis and Schizophrenia (pp. 3774). San Diego: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Bell, D. S. (1973). The experimental reproduction of amphetamine psychosis. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 29, 3540.Google Scholar
Cahill, J. D., Gupta, S., Cortes-Briones, J., et al. (2018). Psychotomimetic and cognitive effects of Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol in laboratory settings. In: Compton, M. T., and Manseau, M. W. (eds.) The Complex Connection between Cannabis and Schizophrenia (pp. 75128). San Diego: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Carliner, H., Brown, Q. L., Sarvet, A. L., et al. (2017). Cannabis use, attitudes, and legal status in the U.S.: A review. Prevent Med, 104, 1323.Google Scholar
Chan, G. C. K., and Hall, W. D. (2020). Estimation of the proportion of population cannabis consumption in Australia that is accounted for by daily users using Monte Carlo simulation. Addiction, 115, 11821186.Google Scholar
Connell, P. H. (1958). Amphetamine Psychosis. (Maudsley Monograph). London: Published for the Institute of Psychiatry by Chapman and Hall.Google Scholar
Connor, J. P., Stjepanović, D., Le Foll, B., et al. (2021). Cannabis use and cannabis use disorder. Nature Rev Dis Primers, 7, 16.Google Scholar
Cox, C. (2018). The Canadian Cannabis Act legalizes and regulates recreational cannabis use in 2018. Health Policy, 122, 205209.Google Scholar
Cresswell, A. (2005). Weak drug laws linked to madness. The Australian, 29 October.Google Scholar
Curran, C., Byrappa, N., and McBride, A. (2004). Stimulant psychosis: Systematic review. Br J Psychiatry, 185, 196204.Google Scholar
Degenhardt, L., and Hall, W. D. (2001). The association between psychosis and problematical drug use among Australian adults: Findings from the National Survey of Mental Health and Well-being. Psychol Med, 31, 659668.Google Scholar
Degenhardt, L., Hall, W. D., and Lynskey, M. (2003). Testing hypotheses about the relationship between cannabis use and psychosis. Drug Alcohol Depend, 71, 3748.Google Scholar
Dills, A., Goffard, S., Miron, J., et al. (2021). The Effect of State Marijuana Legalizations: 2021 Update. Washington, DC: Cato Institute.Google Scholar
Dwyer, T., Ponsonby, A. L., Blizzard, L., et al. (1995). The contribution of changes in the prevalence of prone sleeping position to the decline in sudden infant death syndrome in Tasmania. JAMA, 273, 783789.Google Scholar
Faggiano, F., Minozzi, S., Versino, E., et al. (2014). Universal school-based prevention for illicit drug use. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, CD003020.Google Scholar
Fergusson, D., and Boden, J. (2008). Cannabis use and later life outcomes. Addiction, 103, 969976; discussion 977–978.Google Scholar
Fergusson, D., Boden, J., and Horwood, L. (2006). Cannabis use and other illicit drug use: Testing the cannabis gateway hypothesis. Addiction, 101, 556569.Google Scholar
Fergusson, D., Hall, W. D., Boden, J., et al. (2015). Rethinking cigarette smoking, cannabis use, and psychosis. Lancet Psychiatry, 2, 581582.Google Scholar
Fergusson, D., Horwood, L., and Ridder, E. (2005). Tests of causal linkages between cannabis use and psychotic symptoms. Addiction, 100, 354366.Google Scholar
Fergusson, D., Horwood, L., and Swain-Campbell, N. (2003). Cannabis dependence and psychotic symptoms in young people. Psychol Med, 33, 1521.Google Scholar
Ferri, M., Allara, E., Bo, A., et al. (2013). Media campaigns for the prevention of illicit drug use in young people. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, CD009287.Google Scholar
Gage, S. H., Hickman, M., Heron, J., et al. (2014). Associations of cannabis and cigarette use with psychotic experiences at age 18: Findings from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Psychol Med, 44, 34353444.Google Scholar
Gage, S. H., Hickman, M., and Zammit, S. (2016). Association between cannabis and psychosis: Epidemiologic evidence. Biol Psychiatry, 79, 549556.Google Scholar
Gates, P. J., Sabioni, P., Copeland, J., et al. (2016). Psychosocial interventions for cannabis use disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 5, CD005336.Google Scholar
Gillespie, N. A., and Kendler, K. S. (2021). Use of genetically informed methods to clarify the nature of the association between cannabis use and risk for schizophrenia. JAMA Psychiatry, 78, 467468.Google Scholar
Gilman, J. M., Sobolewski, S. M., and Eden Evins, A. (2018). Cannabis use as an independent risk factor for, or component cause of, schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders. In: Compton, M. T., and Manseau, M. W. (eds.) The Complex Connection between Cannabis and Schizophrenia (pp. 221246). San Diego: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Glantz, S. A., Slade, J., Bero, L. A., et al. (eds.) (1996). The Cigarette Papers. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Greenberg, D. M., and Lee, J. W. (2001). Psychotic manifestations of alcoholism. Curr Psychiatry Rep, 3, 314318.Google Scholar
Hall, W. D. (1997). The recent Australian debate about the prohibition on cannabis use. Addiction, 92, 11091115.Google Scholar
Hall, W. D., Degenhardt, L. D., and Lynskey, M. (2001). The Health and Psychological Effects of Cannabis Use. Canberra: Commonwealth Department of Health and Aged Care.Google Scholar
Hall, W. D., Degenhardt, L., and Patton, G. (2008). Cannabis abuse and dependence. In: Essau, C. A. (ed.) Adolescent Addiction: Epidemiology, Treatment and Assessment (pp. 117148). London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Hall, W. D., and Hando, J. (1993). Patterns of illicit psychostimulant use in Australia. In: Burrows, D., Flaherty, B. A., and MacAvoy, M. (eds.) Psychostimulant Use in Australia. Canberra: AGPS.Google Scholar
Hall, W. D., Leung, J., and Lynskey, M. (2020). The effects of cannabis use on the development of adolescents and young adults. Ann Rev Develop Psychol, 2, 461483.Google Scholar
Hall, W. D., and Lynskey, M. (2005). Is cannabis a gateway drug? Testing hypotheses about the relationship between cannabis use and the use of other illicit drugs. Drug Alcohol Rev, 24, 3948.Google Scholar
Hall, W. D., and Pacula, R. (2010). Cannabis Use and Dependence: Public Health and Public Policy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hall, W. D., Stjepanović, D., Caulkins, J., et al. (2019). Public health implications of legalising the production and sale of cannabis for medicinal and recreational use. Lancet, 394, 15801590.Google Scholar
Hasan, A., von Keller, R., Friemel, C. M., et al. (2020). Cannabis use and psychosis: A review of reviews. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci, 270, 403412.Google Scholar
Henquet, C., Krabbendam, L., Spauwen, J., et al. (2005). Prospective cohort study of cannabis use, predisposition for psychosis, and psychotic symptoms in young people. BMJ, 330, 11.Google Scholar
Hindley, G., Beck, K., Borgan, F., et al. (2020). Psychiatric symptoms caused by cannabis constituents: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Psychiatry, 7, 344353.Google Scholar
Hudak, J., Ramsey, G., and Walsh, J. (2018). Uruguay’s Cannabis Law: Pioneering a New Paradigm. Washington, DC: Center for Effective Public Management at Brookings.Google Scholar
Hunt, G. E., Siegfried, N., Morley, K., et al. (2019). Psychosocial interventions for people with both severe mental illness and substance misuse. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 12, CD001088.Google Scholar
Hunter, A., Murray, R., Asher, L., et al. (2020). The effects of tobacco smoking, and prenatal tobacco smoke exposure, on risk of schizophrenia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nicotine Tobacco Res, 22, 310.Google Scholar
de Irala, J., Ruiz-Canela, M., and Martinez-Gonzalez, M. (2005). Causal relationship between cannabis use and psychotic symptoms or depression. Should we wait and see? A public health perspective. Med Sci Monitor, 11, RA355–358.Google Scholar
Isbell, H., Fraser, H. F., Wikler, A., et al. (1955). An experimental study of the etiology of rum fits and delirium tremens. Q J Stud Alcohol, 16, 133.Google Scholar
Iversen, L. (2012). How cannabis works in the human brain. In: Castle, D., Murray, R., and D’Souza, D. C. (eds.) Marijuana and Madness (pp. 111). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Jones, H. J., Gage, S. H., Heron, J., et al. (2018). Association of combined patterns of tobacco and cannabis use in adolescence with psychotic experiences. JAMA Psychiatry, 75, 240246.Google Scholar
Klein, D. F. (2006). The flawed basis for FDA post-marketing safety decisions: The example of anti-depressants and children. Neuropsychopharmacology, 31, 689699.Google Scholar
Ksir, C., and Hart, C. L. (2016). Cannabis and psychosis: A critical overview of the relationship. Curr Psychiatry Rep, 18, 12.Google Scholar
Lappin, J. M., and Sara, G. E. (2019). Psychostimulant use and the brain. Addiction, 114, 20652077.Google Scholar
Lishman, W. A. (1987). Organic Psychiatry: The Psychological Consequences of Cerebral Disorder. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific.Google Scholar
Lorenzetti, V., Hoch, E., and Hall, W. (2020). Adolescent cannabis use, cognition, brain health and educational outcomes: A review of the evidence. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 36, 169180.Google Scholar
MacCoun, R. J., and Reuter, P. (2001). Drug War Heresies: Learning from Other Vices, Times and Places. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Macleod, J., Oakes, R., Copello, A., et al. (2004). Psychological and social sequelae of cannabis and other illicit drug use by young people: A systematic review of longitudinal, general population studies. Lancet, 363, 15791588.Google Scholar
Marconi, A., Di Forti, M., Lewis, C. M., et al. (2016). Meta-analysis of the association between the level of cannabis use and risk of psychosis. Schizophr Bull, 42, 12621269.Google Scholar
McBride, N. (2003). A systematic review of school drug education. Health Educ Res, 18, 729742.Google Scholar
McGinty, E. E., Niederdeppe, J., Heley, K., et al. (2017). Public perceptions of arguments supporting and opposing recreational marijuana legalization. Prevent Med, 99, 8086.Google Scholar
McKetin, R., Lubman, D. I., Baker, A. L., et al. (2013). Dose-related psychotic symptoms in chronic methamphetamine users: Evidence from a prospective longitudinal study. JAMA Psychiatry, 70, 319324.Google Scholar
Moore, T. H. M., Zammit, S., Lingford-Hughes, A., et al. (2007). Cannabis use and risk of psychotic or affective mental health outcomes: A systematic review. Lancet, 370, 319328.Google Scholar
Mullen, J. M., Richards, J. R., and Crawford, A. T. (2020). Amphetamine Related Psychiatric Disorders. Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing.Google Scholar
Narasimha, V. L., Patley, R., Shukla, L., et al. (2019). Phenomenology and course of alcoholic hallucinosis. J Dual Diagn, 15, 172176.Google Scholar
Norberg, M. M., Kezelman, S., and Lim-Howe, N. (2013). Primary prevention of cannabis use: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. PLoS ONE, 8, e53187.Google Scholar
van Os, J., Bak, M., Hanssen, M., et al. (2002). Cannabis use and psychosis: A longitudinal population-based study. Am J Epidemiol, 156, 319327.Google Scholar
Pacula, R. L., Kilmer, B., Wagenaar, A. C., et al. (2014). Developing public health regulations for marijuana: Lessons from alcohol and tobacco. Am J Public Health, 104, 10211028.Google Scholar
Patel, R. S., Sreeram, V., Vadukapuram, R., et al. (2020). Do cannabis use disorders increase medication non-compliance in schizophrenia?: United States nationwide inpatient cross-sectional study. Schizophr Res, 224, 4044.Google Scholar
Patton, G. C., Coffey, C., Carlin, J. B., et al. (2002). Cannabis use and mental health in young people: Cohort study. BMJ, 325, 11951198.Google Scholar
Patton, G. C., Coffey, C., Lynskey, M. T., et al. (2007). Trajectories of adolescent alcohol and cannabis use into young adulthood. Addiction, 102, 607615.Google Scholar
Pollack, H. A., and Reuter, P. (2007). The implications of recent findings on the link between cannabis and psychosis. Addiction, 102, 173176.Google Scholar
Porath-Waller, A. J., Beasley, E., and Beirness, D. J. (2010). A meta-analytic review of school-based prevention for cannabis use. Health Educ Behav, 37, 709723.Google Scholar
Room, R., Fischer, B., Hall, W. D., et al. (2010). Cannabis Policy: Moving beyond Stalemate. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Schoeler, T., Monk, A., Sami, M. B., et al. (2016). Continued versus discontinued cannabis use in patients with psychosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Psychiatry, 3, 215225.Google Scholar
Shover, C. L., and Humphreys, K. (2019). Six policy lessons relevant to cannabis legalization. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse, 45, 698706.Google Scholar
Single, E. W. (1989). The impact of marijuana decriminalization: An update. J Public Health Policy, 9, 456466.Google Scholar
Smart, R., Caulkins, J. P., Kilmer, B., et al. (2017). Variation in cannabis potency and prices in a newly legal market: Evidence from 30 million cannabis sales in Washington state. Addiction, 112, 21672177.Google Scholar
Subritzky, T., Pettigrew, S., and Lenton, S. (2016). Issues in the implementation and evolution of the commercial recreational cannabis market in Colorado. Int J Drug Policy, 27, 112.Google Scholar
Voce, A., McKetin, R., Burns, R., et al. (2019). A systematic review of the symptom profile and course of methamphetamine use and psychotic symptoms profiles associated psychosis. Subst Use Misuse, 54, 549559.Google Scholar
Winters, K. C., Mader, J., Budney, A. J., et al. (2020). Interventions for cannabis use disorder. Curr Opin Psychology, 38, 6774.Google Scholar
Zammit, S., Allebeck, P., Andréasson, S., et al. (2002). Self reported cannabis use as a risk factor for schizophrenia in Swedish conscripts of 1969: Historical cohort study. BMJ, 325, 11991201.Google Scholar
Zammit, S., Moore, T. H., Lingford-Hughes, A., et al. (2008). Effects of cannabis use on outcomes of psychotic disorders: Systematic review. Br J Psychiatry, 193, 357363.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

  • The Changing Face of Cannabis
  • Edited by Deepak Cyril D'Souza, Staff Psychiatrist, VA Connecticut Healthcare System; Professor of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, David Castle, University of Tasmania, Australia, Sir Robin Murray, Honorary Consultant Psychiatrist, Psychosis Service at the South London and Maudsley NHS Trust; Professor of Psychiatric Research at the Institute of Psychiatry
  • Book: Marijuana and Madness
  • Online publication: 12 May 2023
Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

  • The Changing Face of Cannabis
  • Edited by Deepak Cyril D'Souza, Staff Psychiatrist, VA Connecticut Healthcare System; Professor of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, David Castle, University of Tasmania, Australia, Sir Robin Murray, Honorary Consultant Psychiatrist, Psychosis Service at the South London and Maudsley NHS Trust; Professor of Psychiatric Research at the Institute of Psychiatry
  • Book: Marijuana and Madness
  • Online publication: 12 May 2023
Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

  • The Changing Face of Cannabis
  • Edited by Deepak Cyril D'Souza, Staff Psychiatrist, VA Connecticut Healthcare System; Professor of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, David Castle, University of Tasmania, Australia, Sir Robin Murray, Honorary Consultant Psychiatrist, Psychosis Service at the South London and Maudsley NHS Trust; Professor of Psychiatric Research at the Institute of Psychiatry
  • Book: Marijuana and Madness
  • Online publication: 12 May 2023
Available formats
×