Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jn8rn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-03T13:04:34.467Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

2 - Living in a seasonal environment

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 November 2009

By
Jon Moen ,
Reidar Andersen  and
Andrew Illius
Edited by
Kjell Danell ,
Roger Bergström ,
Patrick Duncan  and
John Pastor
Jon Moen
Affiliation:
Umeå University
Reidar Andersen
Affiliation:
Norwegian University of Science and Technology
Andrew Illius
Affiliation:
University of Edinburgh
Kjell Danell
Affiliation:
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences
Roger Bergström
Affiliation:
The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden
Patrick Duncan
Affiliation:
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris
John Pastor
Affiliation:
University of Minnesota, Duluth
Get access

Summary

INTRODUCTION

Accentuated seasons are a common phenomenon in large parts of the globe. This typically involves a pulse of plant growth during the favourable season, and an extended unfavourable season with no plant growth, which may be due to temperature variations in high latitudes or water limitations in arid environments. The consequences for large herbivores will be one season with abundant food resources and another season with very low food resources. This is especially pronounced in northern high latitudes where the favourable season can be as short as a month or less.

Polar areas receive less solar radiation than other parts of the globe on an annual basis, and this radiation is also to a large part lost to space due to reflection by clouds, snow and ice. This radiation imbalance gives low temperatures and low annual primary productivity. However, solar radiation levels vary greatly between seasons; in the summer the poles receive higher levels of radiation than any other place on Earth, whereas there may be a total lack of incoming solar radiation during winter. As plants experience 24 hours of daylight during summer, productivity on a daily basis may be very high in areas where the geology and topography are favourable for weathering and the transport of nutrients. Thus the pulsed plant growth may be of short duration but very strong.

The large annual variation in plant growth imposes constraints on herbivores as life history tactics must be adjusted to fit the seasonal pattern of the system.

Type
Chapter
Information
Large Herbivore Ecology, Ecosystem Dynamics and Conservation , pp. 50 - 70
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2006

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aanes, R., Sæther, B.‐E. & Øritsland, N. A. (2000). Fluctuations of an introduced population of Svalbard reindeer: the effects of density dependence and climatic variation. Ecography, 23, 437–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aanes, R., Sæther, B.‐E., Smith, F. M.et al. (2002). he Arctic Oscillation predicts effects of climate change in two trophic levels in a high‐arctic ecosystem. Ecological Letters, 5, 445–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aanes, R., Sæther, B.‐E., Solberg, E. J.et al. (2003). Synchrony in Svalbard reindeer population dynamics. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 81, 103–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adamczewski, J. Z., Gates, C. C., Hudson, R. J. & Price, M. A. (1987). Seasonal changes in body composition of mature female caribou and calves (Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus) on an arctic island with limited winter resources. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 65, 1149–57.CrossRef
Adamczewski, J. Z., Flood, P. F. & Gunn, A. (1997). Seasonal patterns in body composition and reproduction of female muskoxen (Ovibos moschatus). Journal of Zoology, 241, 245–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Albon, S. D., Clutton‐Brock, T. H. & Langvatn, R. (1992). Cohort variation in reproduction and survival: implications for population demography. New York: In The Biology of Deer, Brown, ed. R. D.. Springer‐Verlag, pp. 15–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andersen, R., Gaillard, J. M., Linnell, J. D. C. & Duncan, P. (2000). Factors affecting maternal care in an income breeder, the European roe deer. Journal of Animal Ecology, 69, 672–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anisimov, O., Fitzharris, B., Hagen, J. O. et al. (2001). Polar regions (Arctic and Antarctic). In Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group 2 to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ed. McCarthy, J. J, Canziani, O. F, Leary, N. A, Dokken, D. J. & White, K. S. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 801–41.Google Scholar
Bernes, C. (1996). The Nordic Arctic Environment: Unspoilt, Exploited, Polluted? Copenhagen: Nordic Council of Ministers.
Bliss, L. C. (1997). Arctic ecosystems of North America. In Ecosystems of the World. 3. Polar and Alpine Tundras, ed. Wielgolaski, F. E.. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 551–681.Google Scholar
Bråthen, K. A. & Oksanen, J. (2001). Reindeer reduce biomass of preferred plant species. Journal of Vegetation Science, 12, 473–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Callaghan, T. V., Körner, C., Lee, S. E. & Cornelison, J. H. C. (1998). Part 1: scenarios for ecosystem responses to global change. In Global Change in Europe's Cold Regions, ed. Heal, O. W., Callaghan, T. V., Cornelison, J. H. C., Körner, C. & Lee, S. E.. European Commission Ecosystems Research Report, 27, L‐2985, Luxembourg, pp. 11–63.Google Scholar
Caughley, G. & Gunn, A. (1993). Dynamics of large herbivores in deserts: kangaroos and caribou. Oikos, 67, 47–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chapin, F. S., III, Shaver, G. S., Giblin, A. E., Nadelhoffer, K. G. & Laundre, J. A.(1995). Response of arctic tundra to experimental and observed changes in climate. Ecology, 66, 564–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chan‐McLeod, A. C. A., White, R. G. & Russell, D. E. (1999). Comparative body composition strategies of breeding and nonbreeding female caribou. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 77, 1901–7.Google Scholar
Chernov, Y. I. & Matveyeva, N. V. (1997). Arctic ecosystems in Russia. In Ecosystems of the World. 3. Polar and Alpine Tundras. ed. Wielgolaski, F. E.. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 361–507.Google Scholar
Clutton‐Brock, T. H. & Coulson, T. (2002). Comparative ungulate dynamics: the devil is in the detail. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B, 357, 1285–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clutton‐Brock, T. H., Illius, A., Wilson, K.et al. (1997). Stability and instability in ungulate populations: an empirical analysis. American Naturalist, 149, 195–219.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna (CAFF) (2001). Arctic Flora and Fauna: Status and Conservation. Helsinki: Edita.
Couturier, S., Brunelle, J., Vandal, D. & St‐Martin, G. (1990). Changes in the population dynamics of the George River caribou herd, 1976–1987. Arctic, 43, 9–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fancy, S. G., Whitten, K. R. & Russell, D. E. (1994). Demography of the Porcupine caribou herd, 1983–1992. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 72, 840–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferguson, S. H. & Messier, F. (1996). Ecological implication of a latitudinal gradient in inter‐annual climatic variability: a test using fractal and chaos theories. Ecography, 19, 382–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Festa‐Bianchet, M.(1998). Condition‐dependent reproductive success in bighorn ewes. Ecology Letters, 1, 91–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Festa‐Bianchet, M., Jorgenson, J. T., King, W. J., Smith, K. G. & Wishart, W. D.(1996). The development of sexual dimorphism: seasonal and lifetime mass changes of bighorn sheep. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 74, 330–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Festa‐Bianchet, M., Gaillard, J. M. & Jorgenson, J. T. (1998). Mass‐ and density‐dependent reproductive success and reproductive costs in a capital breeder. American Naturalist, 152, 367–79.Google Scholar
Finstad, G. L. & Prichard, A. K. (2000). Growth and body weight of free‐range reindeer in western Alaska. Rangifer, 20, 221–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flydal, K. & Reimers, E. (2002). Relationship between calving time and physical condition in three wild reindeer Rangifer tarandus populations in southern Norway. Wildlife Biology, 8, 145–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Folland, C. K., Karl, T. R., Christy, J. R. et al. (2001). Observed climate variability and change. In Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group 1 to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ed. Houghton, J. Y., Ding, Y., Griggs, D. J., Noguer, M., Linden, P. J., Dai, X., Maskell, K. & Johnson, C. A.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 99–181.Google Scholar
Forchhammer, M. & Boertmann, D. (1993). The muskoxen Ovibos moschatusin north and northeast Greenland: population trends and the influence of abiotic parameters on population dynamics. Ecography, 16, 299–308.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gaillard, J.‐M., Festa‐Blanchet, M. & Yoccoz, N. G. (1998). Population dynamics of large herbivores: variable recruitment with constant adult survival. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 13, 58–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grenfell, B. T., Wilson, K., Finkenstädt, B. F.et al. (1998). Noise and determinism in sycnhronized sheep dynamics. Nature, 394, 674–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gunn, A. (1995). Responses of Arctic ungulates to climate change. In Human Ecology and Climate Change, ed. Peterson, D. L. & Johnson., D. R.Washington: Taylor & Francis, pp. 89–104.Google Scholar
Gunn, A. & Skogland, T. (1997). Responses of caribou and reindeer to global warming. Ecological Studies, 124, 189–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Havström, M., Callaghan, T. V. & Jonasson, S. (1993). Differential growth responses of Cassiope tetragona, an arctic dwarf‐shrub, to environmental perturbations among three contrasting high‐ and subarctic sites. Oikos, 66, 389–402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heard, D. C. & Ouellet, J.‐P. (1994). Dynamics of an introduced caribou population. Arctic, 47, 88–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heggberget, T. M., Gaare, E. & Ball, J. P. (2002). Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) and climate change: importance of winter forage. Rangifer, 22, 13–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Helle, T. & Aspi, J. (1983). Effects of winter grazing by reindeer on vegetation. Oikos, 40, 337–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hurrell, J. W., Kushnir, Y., Ottersen, G. & Visbeck, M. (2003). An overview of the North Atlantic Oscillation. In The North Atlantic Oscillation. Climate Significance and Environmental Impact, ed. Hurrell, J. W., Kushnir, Y., Ottersen, G. & Visbeck, M.. American Geophysical Union, Washington, pp. 1–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Illius, A. W. (1997). Physiological adaptation in savanna ungulates. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 56, 1041–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Illius, A. W. & O'Connor, T. G. (1999). On the relevance of nonequilibrium concepts to arid and semiarid grazing systems. Ecological Applications, 9, 798–813.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Illius, A. W. & O'Connor, T. G. (2000). Resource heterogeneity and ungulate population dynamics. Oikos, 89, 283–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jönsson, K. I. (1997). Capital and income breeding as alternative tactics of resource use in reproduction. Oikos, 78, 57–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klein, D. R. (1987). Vegetation recovery patterns following overgrazing by reindeer on St. Matthew Island. Journal of Range Management, 40, 336–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kojola, I. & Eloranta, E. (1989). Influences of maternal body weight, age and parity on sex ratio in semidomesticated reindeer (Rangifer t. tarandus). Evolution, 43, 1331–6.Google Scholar
Kullman, L. (2002). Recent reversal of Neoglacial climate cooling trend in the Swedish Scandes as evidenced by mountain birch tree‐limit rise. Global Planetary Change, 36, 77–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kumpula, J. (2001). Productivity of the Semidomesticated Reindeer (Rangifer t. tarandus L.) stock and carrying capacity of pastures in Finland during 1960–1990's. Ph.D. thesis, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland.Google Scholar
Lande, R., Engen, S. & Sæther, B.‐E. (2003). Stochastic Population Dynamics in Ecology and Conservation. Oxford; Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Langvatn, R., Albon, S. D., Burkey, T. & Clutton‐Brock, T. H. (1996). Climate, plant phenology and variation in age of first reproduction in a temperate herbivore. Journal of Animal Ecology, 65, 653–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, S. E., Press, M. C., Lee, J. A., Ingold, T. & Kurttila, T. (2000). Regional effects of climate change on reindeer: a case study of the Muotkatunturi region in Finnish Lapland. Polar Research, 19, 99–105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lenart, E. A., Bowyer, R. T., Ver Hoef, J. & Ruess, R. W. (2002). Climate change and caribou: effects of summer weather on forage. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 80, 664–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lent, P. C. (1988). Ovibos moschatus. Mammalian Species, 302, 1–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Linnell, J. D. C., Cuyler, C., Loison, A. et al. (2000). The Scientific Basis for Managing the Sustainable Harvest of Caribou and Muskoxen in Greenland for the 21st Century: an Evaluation and Agenda. Technical Report no. 34, 2000. Greenland Institute of Natural Resources, Nuuk.
Loudon, A. S. I. & Brinklow, B. R. (1992). Reproduction in deer: adaptations for life in seasonal environments. In The Biology of Deer, ed. R.D. Brown. New York; Springer‐Verlag, pp. 261–78.
Manseau, M., Huot, J. & Crête, M. (1996). Effects of summer grazing by caribou on composition and productivity of vegetation: community and landscape level. Journal of Ecology, 84, 503–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mårell, A. (2001). Summer Feeding Behaviour of Reindeer and its Relation to the Food Resource. Licentiate thesis, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences.
Meldgaard, M. (1986). The Greenland Caribou: Zoogeography, Taxonomy, and Population Dynamics. Meddelelser om Grønland; Bioscience.
Miller, F. L., Russell, R. H. & Gunn, A. (1975). The recent decline of Peary caribou on western Queen Elizabeth Islands of Arctic Canada. Polarforschung, 45, 17–21.Google Scholar
Moen, J. & Danell, Ö. (2003). Reindeer in the Swedish mountains: an assessment of grazing impacts. Ambio, 32, 397–402.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mulder, C. P. H. (1999). Vertebrate herbivores and plants in the Arctic and subarctic: effects on individuals, populations, communities and ecosystems. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics, 2, 29–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mulder, C. P. H. & Harmsen, R. (1995). The effect of muskox herbivory on growth and reproduction in an Arctic legume. Arctic and Alpine Research, 27, 44–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mysterud, A., Stenseth, N. C., Yoccoz, N., Ottersen, G. & Langvatn, R. (2003). The response of terrestrial ecosystems to climate variability associated with the North Atlantic Oscillation. In The North Atlantic Oscillation. Climate Significance and Environmental Impact, ed. Hurrell, J. W., Kushnir, Y., Ottersen, G. & Visbeck, M.. Washington; American Geophysical Union, pp. 235–262.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olofsson, J., Kitti, H., Rautiainen, P., Stark, S. & Oksanen, L. (2001). Effects of summer grazing by reindeer on composition of vegetation, productivity and nitrogen cycling. Ecography, 24, 13–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olofsson, J., Stark, S. & Oksanen, L.(2004). Reindeer influence on ecosystem processes in the tundra. Oikos, 105, 386–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parmesan, C. & Yohe, G. (2003). A globally coherent fingerprint of climate change impacts across natural systems. Nature, 421, 37–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Post, E. (2003). Large‐scale climate synchronizes the timing of flowering by multiple species. Ecology, 84, 277–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Post, E. & Forchhammer, M. C. (2002). Synchronization of animal population dynamics by large‐scale climate. Nature, 420, 168–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Post, E. & Stenseth, N. C. (1999). Climatic variability, plant phenology, and northern ungulates. Ecology, 80, 1322–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Putkonen, J. & Roe, G. (2003). Rain‐on‐snow events impact soil temperatures and affect ungulate survival. Geophysical Research Letters, 30, 37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raillard, M. & Svoboda, J. (2000). High grazing impact, selectivity, and local density of muskoxen in Central Ellesmere Island, Canadian High Arctic. Arctic, Antarctic and Alpine Research, 32, 278–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reimers, E., Klein, D. R. & Sørumgård, R. (1983). Calving time, growth rate, and body size of Norwegian reindeer on different ranges. Arctic and Alpine Research, 15, 107–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reynolds, P. E. (1998). Dynamics and range expansion of a reestablished muskox population. Journal of Wildlife Management, 62, 734–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogers, J. C. (1984). The association between the North Atlantic Oscillation and the Southern Oscillation in the northern hemisphere. Monthly Weather Review, 112, 1999–2005.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rönnegård, L., Forslund, P. & Danell, Ö. (2002). Lifetime patterns in adult female mass, reproduction, and offspring mass in semidomestic reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus). Canadian Journal of Zoology, 80, 2047–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Root, T., Price, J. T., Hall, K. R.et al. (2003). Fingerprints of global warming on wild animals and plants. Nature, 421, 57–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sæther, B.‐E. (1997). Environmental stochasticity and population dynamics of large herbivores: a search for mechanisms. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 12, 143–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skogland, T. (1985). The effects of density‐dependent resource limitations on the demography of wild reindeer. Journal of Animal Ecology, 54, 359–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skogland, T. (1990). Density dependence in a fluctuating wild reindeer herd; maternal vs. offspring effects. Oecologia, 84, 442–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Solberg, E., Jordhøy, J. P., Strand, O.et al. (2001). Effects of density‐dependence and climate on the dynamics of a Svalbard reindeer population. Ecography, 24, 441–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stark, S., Strömmer, R. & Tuomi, J. (2002). Reindeer grazing and soil microbial processes in two suboceanic and two subcontinental tundra heaths. Oikos, 97, 69–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stenseth, N. C., Mysterud, A., Ottersen, G.et al. (2002). Ecological effects of climate fluctuations. Science, 297, 1292–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sturm, M., Racine, C. & Tape, K. (2001). Increasing shrub abundance in the Arctic. Nature, 411, 546–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suominen, O. & Olofsson, J. (2000). Impacts of semi‐domesticated reindeer on structure of tundra and forest communities in Fennoscandia: a review. Annales Zoologica Fennica, 37, 233–49.Google Scholar
Suttie, J. M. & Webster, J. R. (1995). Extreme seasonal growth in Arctic deer: comparisons and control mechanisms. American Zoologist, 35, 215–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tolvanen, A. & Henry, G. H. R. (2000). Population structure of three dominant sedges under muskox herbivory in the high arctic. Arctic, Antarctic and Alpine Research, 32, 449–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wal, R., Brooker, R., Cooper, E. & Langvatn, R. (2001). Differential effects of reindeer on high Arctic lichens. Journal of Vegetation Science, 12, 705–10.Google Scholar
Väre, H., Ohtonen, R. & Mikkola, K. (1996). The effect and extent of heavy grazing by reindeer in oligotrophic pine heaths in northeastern Fennoscandia. Ecography, 19, 245–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vilchek, G. E. (1997). Arctic ecosystem stability and disturbance. In Disturbance and Recovery in Arctic Lands, ed. Crawford, R. M. M.. NATO‐ASI series, no. 2, Environment. Dordrecht:Kluwer, pp. 179–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Virtanen, R. (1998). Impact of grazing and neighbour removal on a heath plant community transplanted onto a snowbed site, NW Finnish Lapland. Oikos, 81, 359–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weladji, R. B. & Holand, Ø. (2003). Global climate change and reindeer: effects of winter weather on the autumn weight and growth of calves. Oecologia, 136, 317–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weladji, R. B., Holand, Ø. & Almøy, T. (2003). Use of climatic data to assess the effect of insect harrassment on the autumn weight of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) calves. Journal of Zoology, London, 260, 79–85.CrossRef
White, R. G., Holleman, D. F. & Tiplady, B. A. (1989). Seasonal body weight, body condition, and lactational trends in muskoxen. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 67, 1125–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wielgolaski, F. E. (1997). Fennoscandian tundra. In Ecosystems of the World. 3. Polar and Alpine Tundras, Wielgolaski, F. E.. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 27–83.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×