MODERN-DAY Cumbria is not only one of the largest counties in England, but also the most geographically hostile. The Cumbrian mountains contain the highest peaks in England, many of which are in excess of 600 m (2000 ft) in altitude. In the present day, in a temperate climate such as Britain’s, the climatic conditions above 600 m are sub-Arctic and the vegetation at this level can be considered to be tundra. The decline in temperature with altitude creates conditions which can allow snow to remain on the upper slopes of some peaks for almost one-third of the year, making conditions dangerous for human survival. The mountains are also characterised by heavy rainfall – approximately four times as much as in lower lying areas of Cumbria. Restricted sunlight hampers viable arable agriculture. It must also be remembered, however, that climate can – and does – change, and the conditions just noted are relevant to the modern-day Cumbrian mountains. The climate was at times somewhat milder in the past – old arable fields can be identified on certain slopes, while the course of the Roman road ‘High Street’ reached in places an altitude of over 760 m (2,500 ft). Further afield, arable agriculture was possible on the higher slopes of Lammermuir in Scotland in the middle ages, while short-lived farmsteads were established as high as 385 m (just over 1,250 ft) on the Rossendale moors in southern Lancashire during the nineteenth century. But although climate may change for better or worse, certain other environmental factors will not. Temperature is always lower at higher altitudes and wind speeds are far higher on the upper slopes of peaks than they are lower down in valleys. The ascent gradient of upland areas does not change either and most ascents in the Cumbrian mountains can be quite debilitating. It is thus by no means surprising that there are but a handful of routes through the Cumbrian mountains and Shap Fells, none of which are straightforward and all of which are prone to the vagaries of poor weather conditions. Even today in contemporary Britain, Cumbria's administrative geography is influenced by the mountains, which serve as a centrifugal force in the far north-west of England. It is a land where – to use Braudel's phrase – ‘mountains come first’.