Northern Europe from England in the west to Poland in the east constituted, early in the Middle Ages, the backward area of western Christendom. Subsequently, the remarkable vitalization of Latin Christendom was centered in this northern area, propelling the heretofore lagging area into the forefront of European civilization. This transformation of northern Europe was, however, by no means uniform. While signs of political maturation first appeared in the German areas, ultimately the more westerly sectors – northern France and England – forged ahead. The first powerful government to appear in northern Europe was the German emperor. The imperial title itself bespeaks greater majesty than kingship. Yet with the passage of time, the “mere” kings of France and England outstripped their imperial counterparts and led their monarchies to supremacy in the medieval West. It is difficult to assess the factors in this differential development. Does it reflect greater perspicacity on the part of the French and English leadership; is it a tribute to the resourcefulness of the French and English people, especially the urban elements in the population; is it simply the result of geography and climate; or was some combination of factors decisive?

Whatever the explanation, the reality is that, while Germany became the site for the earliest development of northern-European Jewry, German Jewry – as was true for so many other spheres of German life – was eventually overtaken and outstripped in both material and cultural terms by its western Jewish neighbors.