Variability of the Oceans

doi:10.1017/9781108610995.002

1 - Variability of the Oceans

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 13 January 2021

Jin-Yi Yu ,

Yan Du ,

Michael J. McPhaden and

Lars H. Smedsrud

Edited by

Carlos R. Mechoso

Show author details

Carlos R. Mechoso: Affiliation:
University of California, Los Angeles

Book contents

Get access

Summary

The oceans have a huge capability to store, release, and transport heat, water, and various chemical species on timescales from seasons to centuries. Their transports affect global energy, water, and biogeochemical cycles and are crucial elements of Earth’s climate system. Ocean variability, as represented, for example, by sea surface temperature (SST) variations, can result in anomalous diabatic heating or cooling of the overlying atmosphere, which can in turn alter atmospheric circulation in such a way as to feedback on ocean thermal and current structures to modify the original SST variations. Ocean–atmosphere interactions in one ocean basin can also influence remote regions via interbasin teleconnections that can trigger responses having both local and far-field impacts. This chapter highlights the defining aspects of the climate in individual ocean basins, including mean states, seasonal cycles, interannual-to-interdecadal variability, and interactions with other basins. Key components of the global and tropical ocean observing system are also described.

Type: Chapter
Information: Interacting Climates of Ocean Basins
Observations, Mechanisms, Predictability, and Impacts
, pp. 1 - 53

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108610995.002 [Opens in a new window]

Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aagaard, K., Swift, J. H., Carmack, E. C. (1985). Thermohaline circulation in the Arctic Mediterranean Seas. Journal of Geophysical Research, 90(C3), 4833–4846.Google Scholar

Abernathey, R., Mazloff, M., Shuckburgh, E. (2010). Enhancement of mesoscale eddy stirring at steering levels in the Southern Ocean. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 40, 170–184.Google Scholar

Alexander, M. A., Deser, C. (1995). A mechanism for the recurrence of wintertime midlatitude SST anomalies. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 25, 122–137.2.0.CO;2>CrossRef Google Scholar

Alexander, M. A., Blade, I., Newman, M., Lanzante, J. R., Lau, N.-C., Scott, J. D. (2002). The atmospheric bridge: The influence of ENSO teleconnections on air-sea interaction over the global oceans, Journal of Climate, 15, 2205–2231.Google Scholar

Alexander, M. A., Vimont, D. J., Chang, P., Scott, J. D. (2010). The impact of extratropical atmospheric variability on ENSO: Testing the seasonal footprinting mechanism using coupled model experiments. Journal of Climate, 23, 2885–2901.Google Scholar

Alexander, M. A., Kilbourne, K. H., Nye, J. A. (2014). Climate variability during warm and cold phases of the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO) 1871–2008. Journal of Marine Systems, 133, 14–26.CrossRef Google Scholar

Alory, G., Wijffels, S., Meyers, G. (2007). Observed temperature trends in the Indian Ocean over 1960–1999 and associated mechanisms. Geophysical Research Letters, 34(2), L02606, doi:10.1029/ 2006GL028044.CrossRef Google Scholar

Alory, G., Meyers, G. (2009). Warming of the upper equatorial Indian Ocean and changes in the heat budget (1960–99). Journal of Climate, 22(1), 93–113.CrossRef Google Scholar

Amaya, D. J., Bond, N. E., Miller, A. J., DeFlorio, M. J. (2016). The evolution and known atmospheric forcing mechanisms behind the 2013–2015 North Pacific warm anomalies. US CLIVAR Variations, 14(2), US CLIVAR, Washington, DC, 1–6, https://usclivar.org/newsletter/newsletters.Google Scholar

Amaya, D. J., DeFlorio, M. J., Miller, A. J., Xie, S.-P. (2017). WES feedback and the Atlantic Meridional Mode: Observations and CMIP5 comparisons. Climate Dynamics, 49(5–6), 1665–1679.Google Scholar

An, S.-I. (2004). A dynamical linkage between the monopole and dipole modes in the tropical Indian Ocean. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 78, 195–201.Google Scholar

Anderson, B. T. (2004). Investigation of a large-scale mode of ocean atmosphere variability and its relation to tropical Pacific sea surface temperature anomalies. Journal of Climate, 17, 1089–4098.Google Scholar

Ando, K., Kuroda, Y., Yosuke, F. Fukuda, T., Hasegawa, T., Horii, T., Ishihara, Y., Kashino, Y., Masumoto, Y., Mizuno, K., Nagura, M., Ueki, I. (2017). Fifteen years progress of the TRITON array in the Western Pacific and Eastern Indian Oceans. Journal of Oceanography, 73(4), 403–426.Google Scholar

Annamalai, H., Murtugudde, R., Potemra, J., et al. (2003). Coupled dynamics over the Indian Ocean: Spring initiation of the Zonal Mode. Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography, 50, 2305–2330.Google Scholar

Annamalai, H., Xie, S. P., McCreary, J. P., et al. (2005). Impact of Indian Ocean sea surface temperature on developing El Niño. Journal of Climate, 18, 302–319.CrossRef Google Scholar

Aoki, S., Rintoul, S. R., Ushio, S., Watanabe, S., Bindoff, N. L. (2005). Freshening of the Adelie Land Bottom Water near 140°E. Geophysical Research Letters, 32, L23601, doi:10.1029/2005GL024246.Google Scholar

Armour, K. C., Marshall, J., Scott, J. R., Donohoe, A., Newsom, E. R. (2016). Southern Ocean warming delayed by circumpolar upwelling and equatorward transport. Nature Geoscience, 9, 549–554.Google Scholar

Årthun, M., Eldevik, T., Smedsrud, L. H., Skagseth, Ø., Ingvaldsen, R. (2012). Quantifying the influence of Atlantic heat on Barents Sea ice variability and retreat. Journal of Climate, 25, 4736–4743.CrossRef Google Scholar

Årthun, M., Eldevik, T., Viste, E., Drange, H., Furevik, T., Johnson, H. L., Keenlyside, N. S. (2017). Skillful prediction of northern climate provided by the ocean. Nature Communications, 8, doi: 10.1038/ncomms16152.Google Scholar

Årthun, M., Kolstad, E. W., Eldevik, T., Keenlyside, N. S. (2018). Time scales and sources of European temperature variability. Geophysical Research Letters, 45, 3597–3604.CrossRef Google Scholar

Årthun, M, Eldevik, T., Smedsrud, L. H. (2019). The role of Atlantic heat transport in future Arctic winter sea ice variability and predictability. Journal of Climate, 32, 3327–3341, doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-18-0750.1.CrossRef Google Scholar

Ashok, K., Chan, W. L., Motoi, T., et al. (2004). Decadal variability of the Indian Ocean dipole. Geophysical Research Letters, 31, L24207, doi:10.1029/2004GL021345.Google Scholar

Ashok, K., Behera, S. K., Rao, S. A., Weng, H., Yamagata, T. (2007). El Niño Modoki and its possible teleconnection. Journal of Geophysical Research, 112, C11007. doi.org/10.1029/2006JC003798.Google Scholar

Baldwin, M. P., Dunkerton, T. J. (2001). Stratospheric harbingers of anomalous weather regimes. Science, 244, 581–584.Google Scholar

Behera, S. K., Krishnan, R., Yamagata, T. (1999). Unusual ocean–atmosphere conditions in the tropical Indian Ocean during 1994. Geophysical Research Letters, 26, 3001–3004.CrossRef Google Scholar

Behera, S. K., Yamagata, T. (2003). Influence of the Indian Ocean Dipole on the southern oscillation. Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan, 81, 169–177.Google Scholar

Bjerknes, J. (1969). Atmospheric teleconnections from the equatorial Pacific. Monthly Weather Review, 97(3), 163–172.2.3.CO;2>CrossRef Google Scholar

Björk, G., Söderkvist, J. (2002). Dependence of the Arctic Ocean ice thickness distribution on the poleward energy flux in the atmosphere. Journal of Geophysical Research, 107(C10), 3173, doi:10.1029/2000JC000723.Google Scholar

Blindheim, J., Rey, F., (2004). Water-mass formation and distribution in the Nordic Seas during the 1990s. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 61, 846–863.CrossRef Google Scholar

Bond, N. A., Cronin, M. F., Freeland, H., Mantua, N. (2015). Causes and impacts of the 2014 warm anomaly in the NE Pacific. Geophysical Research Letters, 42, 3414–3420.Google Scholar

Böning, C. W., Dispert, A., Visbeck, M., Rintoul, S., Schwarzkoph, F. U. (2008). The response of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current to recent climate change, Nature Geoscience, 1, 864–869.Google Scholar

Bourlès, B., Lumpkin, R., McPhaden, M. J., Hernandez, F., Nobre, P., Campos, E., Yu, L., Planton, S., Busalacchi, A., Moura, A. D., Servain, S., Trotte, J. (2008). THE PIRATA PROGRAM: History, accomplishments, and future directions. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 89, 1112–1125.CrossRef Google Scholar

Bringedal, C., Eldevik, T., Skagseth, Ø., Spall, M., Østerhus, S. (2018). Structure and forcing of observed exchanges across the Greenland–Scotland Ridge. Journal of Climate, 31, 9881–9901.Google Scholar

Bruce, J. (1973). Equatorial undercurrent in the western Indian Ocean during the southwest monsoon. Journal of Geophysical Research, 78, 6386–6394.Google Scholar

Buckley, M. W., Marshall, J. (2016). Observations, inferences, and mechanisms of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation: A review. Reviews of Geophysics, 54(1), 5–63.Google Scholar

Cai, W., Meyers, G., Shi, G. (2005). Transmission of ENSO signal to the Indian Ocean. Geophysical Research Letters, 32, 347–354.CrossRef Google Scholar

Cai, W. (2006). Antarctic ozone depletion causes an intensification of the Southern Ocean super-gyre circulation. Geophysical Research Letters, 33. L03712, doi:10.1029/2005GL024911.CrossRef Google Scholar

Cai, W. Cowan, T. (2007). Trends in Southern Hemisphere circulation in IPCC AR4 models over 1950–99: Ozone depletion versus greenhouse forcing. Journal of Climate, 20, 681–693.Google Scholar

Cai, W., Cowan, T., Sullivan, A. (2009). Recent unprecedented skewness towards positive Indian Ocean Dipole occurrences and its impact on Australian rainfall. Geophysical Research Letters, 36, 245–253.Google Scholar

Cai, W., Qiu, Y. (2013). An observation-based assessment of nonlinear feedback processes associated with the Indian Ocean dipole. Journal of Climate, 26, 2880–2890.Google Scholar

Cai, W., Wu, L., Lengaigne, M. Li, T., McGregor, S., Kug, J.-S., Yu, J.-Y., Stuecker, M. F., Santoso, A., Li, X., Ham, Y.-G., Chikamoto, Y., Ng, B., McPhaden, M. J., Du, Y., Dommenget, D., Jia, F., Kajtar, J. B., Keenlyside, N. S., Lin, X., Luo, J.-J., Martín del Rey, M., Ruprich-Robert, Y., Wang, G., Xie, S.-P., Yang, Y., Kang, S. M., Choi, J.-Y., Gan, B., Kim, G.-I. Kim, C.-E., Kim, S., Kim, J.-H., Chang, P., (2019). Pan-tropical climate interactions. Science, 36(6430), eaav4236.Google Scholar

Campos, E. J. D., Franca, C. A. S., Vicentini Neto, F. L., Nonnato, L. V. Piola, A. R. L Barreira, L. R. Cole, R. Nobre, P., Trote-Duha, J. (2014). Atlas-B: Development and testing of a Brazilian deep-ocean moored buoy for climate research. Journal of Shipping and Ocean Engineering, 2, 11–20.Google Scholar

Capotondi, A., Wittenberg, A. T., Newman, M., Di Lorenzo, E., Yu, J.-Y., et al. (2015). Understanding ENSO diversity. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 96, 921–938.Google Scholar

Chang, P., Ji, L., Li, H. (1997). A decadal climate variation in the tropical Atlantic Ocean from thermodynamic air-sea interactions. Nature, 385(6616), 516.Google Scholar

Chang, P., Zhang, L., Saravanan, R., Vimont, D. J., Chiang, J. C. H., Ji, L., Seidel, H., Tippett, M. K. (2007). Pacific meridional mode and El Niño-Southern Oscillation. Geophysical Research Letters, 34, L16608, doi:10.1029/2007GL030302.Google Scholar

Chapman, W. L., Walsh, J. E. (1993). Recent variations of sea ice and air temperature in high latitudes. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 74, 33–47.Google Scholar

Chen, G., Han, W., Li, Y., Wang, D., McPhaden, M. J. (2015). Seasonal-to-interannual time-scale dynamics of the equatorial undercurrent in the Indian Ocean. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 45(6), 1532–1553.Google Scholar

Chen, G. X., Han, W. Q., Li, Y. L., Wang, D. (2016). Interannual variability of equatorial eastern Indian Ocean upwelling: Local versus remote forcing. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 46, 789–807.CrossRef Google Scholar

Chen, Z., Du, Y., Wen, Z., Wu, R. Xie, , S.-P. (2019). Evolution of south tropical Indian Ocean warming and the climatic impacts following strong El Niño events, Journal of Climate, 32, 7329–7347.Google Scholar

Chen, Z., Wen, Z., Wu, R., Lin, X., Wang, J. (2016). Relative importance of tropical SST anomalies in maintaining the western north Pacific anomalous anticyclone during El Niño to la Niña transition years. Climate Dynamics, 46, 1027–1041.Google Scholar

Chen, Z., Wen, Z., Wu, R., Du, Y. (2017). Roles of tropical SST anomalies in modulating the western north pacific anomalous cyclone during strong La Niña decaying years. Climate Dynamics, 49, 633–647.Google Scholar

Chiang, J. C., Vimont, D. J. (2004). Analogous Pacific and Atlantic meridional modes of tropical atmosphere-ocean variability. Journal of Climate, 17 , 4143–4158.Google Scholar

Chung, C. E., Ramanathan, V. (2006). Weakening of North Indian SST gradients and the monsoon rainfall in India and the Sahel. Journal of Climate, 19(10), 2036–2045.CrossRef Google Scholar

Ciasto, L. M., Thompson, D. W. J. (2008). Observations of largescale ocean–atmosphere interaction in the Southern Hemisphere. Journal of Climate, 21, 1244–1259.CrossRef Google Scholar

Clement, A., Bellomo, K., Murphy, L. N., Cane, M. A., Mauritsen, T., Rädel, G., Stevens, B. (2015). The Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation without a role for ocean circulation. Science, 350(6258), 320–324.Google Scholar

Comiso, J. C., Nishio, F. (2008). Trends in the sea ice cover using enhanced and compatible AMSR-E, SSM/I, and SMMR data. Journal of Geophysical Research, 113, C02S07, doi:10.1029/2007JC004257.Google Scholar

Comiso, J. C. (2010). Variability and trends of the global sea ice cover. Sea Ice, 2nd edn., Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, UK, 205–246.Google Scholar

Conway, D. (2002). Extreme rainfall events and lake level changes in East Africa: Recent events and historical precedents. Advances in Global Change Research, 12, 63–92.Google Scholar

Cowan, T., Cai, W., Purich, A., Rotstayn, L., England, M. H. (2013). Forcing of anthropogenic aerosols on temperature trends of the sub-thermocline southern Indian Ocean. Scientific Reports, 3, 2245.Google Scholar

Cresswell, G. R., Golding, T. J. (1980). Observations of a south-flowing current in the southeastern Indian Ocean: Deep sea research part A. Oceanographic Research Papers, 27(6), 449–466.CrossRef Google Scholar

Curry, R., Mauritzen, C. (2005). Dilution of the Northern North Atlantic Ocean in recent decades. Science, 308, 1772–1774.Google Scholar

Danabasoglu, G., Yeager, S. G., Kwon, Y. O., Tribbia, J. J., Phillips, A. S., Hurrell, J. W. (2012). Variability of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation in CCSM4. Journal of Climate, 25(15), 5153–5172.Google Scholar

Delman, A. S., Sprintall, J., McClean, J. L., Talley, L. D. (2016). Anomalous Java cooling at the initiation of positive Indian Ocean Dipole events. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans, 121, 5805–5824.CrossRef Google Scholar

Delworth, T., Manabe, S., Stouffer, R. J. (1993). Interdecadal variations of the thermohaline circulation in a coupled ocean–atmosphere model. Journal of Climate, 6(11), 1993–2011.Google Scholar

Delworth, T. L., Greatbatch, R. J. (2000). Multidecadal thermohaline circulation variability driven by atmospheric surface flux forcing. Journal of Climate, 13(9), 1481–1495.Google Scholar

Delworth, T. L., Mann, M. E. (2000). Observed and simulated multidecadal variability in the Northern Hemisphere. Climate Dynamics, 16(9), 661–676.Google Scholar

Delworth, T. L., Zeng, F. (2016). The impact of the North Atlantic Oscillation on climate through its influence on the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation. Journal of Climate, 29(3), 941–962.Google Scholar

Deppenmeier, A. L., Haarsma, R. J., Hazeleger, W. (2016). The Bjerknes feedback in the tropical Atlantic in CMIP5 models. Climate Dynamics, 47(7–8), 2691–2707.CrossRef Google Scholar

Deser, C., Blackmon, M. L. (1993). Surface climate variations over the North Atlantic Ocean during winter: 1900–1989. Journal of Climate, 6(9), 1743–1753.Google Scholar

Deser, C., Phillips, A. S., Alexander, M. A. (2010). Twentieth century tropical sea surface temperature trends revisited. Geophysical Research Letters, 37(10), L10701, doi:10.1029/2010GL043321.Google Scholar

Dickson, R. R., Brown, J. (1994). The production of North Atlantic deep water: Sources, rates and pathways. Journal of Geophysical Research, 99, 12319–12342.Google Scholar

Di Lorenzo, E., Mantua, N. (2016). Multi-year persistence of the 2014/15 North Pacific marine heatwave. Nature Climate Change, 6 , 1042–1047.Google Scholar

Dieppois, B., Durand, A., Fournier, M., Diedhiou, A., Fontaine, B., Massei, N., Nouaceur, N., Sebag, Z., D. (2015). Low-frequency variability and zonal contrast in Sahel rainfall and Atlantic sea surface temperature teleconnections during the last century. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 121(1–2), 139–155.Google Scholar

Ding, Q., Steig, E. J., Battisti, D. S., Küttell, M. (2011). Winter warming in West Antarctica caused by central tropical Pacific warming. Nature Geoscience, 4, 398–403.Google Scholar

Ding, H., Keenlyside, N. S., Latif, M. (2012). Impact of the equatorial Atlantic on the El Niño southern oscillation. Climate Dynamics, 38(9–10), 1965–1972.Google Scholar

Dippe, T., Greatbatch, R. J., Ding, H. (2017). On the relationship between Atlantic Niño variability and ocean dynamics. Climate Dynamics, 51 (1–2), 1–16.Google Scholar

Domingues, C. M., Maltrud, M. E., Wijffels, S. E., Church, J. A., Tomczak, M. (2007). Simulated Lagrangian pathways between the Leeuwin current system and the upper-ocean circulation of the southeast Indian Ocean. Deep-Sea Research Part II, 54(8), 797–817.Google Scholar

Dong, L., Zhou, T. (2014). The Indian Ocean sea surface temperature warming simulated by CMIP5 models during the twentieth century: Competing forcing roles of GHGs and anthropogenic aerosols. Journal of Climate, 27(9), 3348–3362.Google Scholar

Donohue, K. A., Tracey, K. L., Watts, D. R., Chidichimo, M. P., Chereskin, T. K. (2016). Mean Antarctic Circumpolar Current transport measured in Drake Passage. Geophysical Research Letters, 43, 11760–11767.Google Scholar

Du, Y., Xie, S.-P. (2008). Role of atmospheric adjustments in the tropical Indian Ocean warming during the 20th century in climate models. Geophysical Research Letters, 35(8), doi:10.1029/2008GL033631.CrossRef Google Scholar

Du, Y., Xie, S.-P., Huang, G., et al. (2009). Role of air-sea interaction in the long persistence of El Niño–induced North Indian Ocean warming. Journal of Climate, 22, 2023–2038.Google Scholar

Du, Y., Yang, L., Xie, S.-P. (2011). Tropical Indian Ocean influence on Northwest Pacific tropical cyclones in summer following strong El Niño. Journal of Climate, 24, 315–322.Google Scholar

Du, Y., Cai, W. J., Wu, Y. L. (2013). A new type of the Indian Ocean Dipole since the mid-1970s. Journal of Climate, 26, 959–972.Google Scholar

Durack, P. J., Wijffels, S. E., Matear, R. J. (2012). Ocean salinities reveal strong global water cycle intensification during 1950 to 2000. Science, 336, 455–458.Google Scholar

Eisenman, I., Meier, W. N., Norris, J. R. (2014). A spurious jump in the satellite record: Has Antarctic sea ice expansion been overestimated? The Cryosphere, 8, 1289–1296.Google Scholar

Eldevik, T., Nilsen, J. E. Ø., Iovino, D., Olsson, K. A., Sandø, A. B., Drange, H. (2009). Observed sources and variability of Nordic seas overflow. Nature Geoscience, 2, 406–410.Google Scholar

Eldevik, T., Nilsen, J. E. Ø. (2013). The Arctic–Atlantic thermohaline circulation. Journal of Climate, 26, 8698–8705.Google Scholar

Eldevik, T., Risebrobakken, B., Bjune, A. E., Andersson, C., Birks, H. J. B., Dokken, T. M., Drange, H., Glessmer, M. S., Li, C., Nilsen, J. E. Ø., Otterå, O. H., Richter, K. Skagseth, Ø. (2014). A brief history of climate: The northern seas from the Last Glacial Maximum to global warming. Quaternary Science Reviews, 106, 225–246.Google Scholar

Enfield, D. B., Mayer, D. A. (1997). Tropical Atlantic sea surface temperature variability and its relation to El Niño–Southern Oscillation. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans, 102, 929–945.Google Scholar

Enfield, D. B., Mestas‐Nuñez, A. M., Trimble, P. J. (2001). The Atlantic multidecadal oscillation and its relation to rainfall and river flows in the continental US. Geophysical Research Letters, 28(10), 2077–2080.Google Scholar

England, M. H., McGregor, S., Spence, P., Meehl, G. A., Timmermann, A., Cai, W., Gupta, A. S., McPhaden, M. J., Purich, A., Santoso, A. (2014). Recent intensification of wind-driven circulation in the Pacific and the ongoing warming hiatus. Nature Climate Change, 4, 222–227.CrossRef Google Scholar

Eriksen, C. (1987). A review of PEQUOD. In Katz, E. J. and Witte, J. M. (eds.) Further Progress in Equatorial Oceanography. Fort Lauderdale, FL: Nova University Press, pp. 29–46.Google Scholar

Fan, M., Schneider, E. K. (2012). Observed decadal North Atlantic tripole SST variability. Part I: Weather noise forcing and coupled response. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 69(1), 35–50.Google Scholar

Feng, M., Meyers, G. (2003). Interannual variability in the tropical Indian Ocean: A two-year time-scale of Indian Ocean Dipole. Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography, 50, 2263–2284.CrossRef Google Scholar

Fogt, R. L., Bromwich, D. H. (2006). Decadal variability of the ENSO teleconnection to the high latitude South Pacific governed by coupling with the Southern Annular Mode. Journal of Climate, 19, 979–997.Google Scholar

Foltz, G. R., McPhaden, M. J. (2010). Interaction between the Atlantic meridional and Niño modes. Geophysical Research Letters, 37, L18604.Google Scholar

Foltz, G. R., Brandt, P., Richter, I., Rodríguez-Fonseca, B., et al. (2019). The Tropical Atlantic Observing System. Frontiers in Marine Sciences, 6, doi:10.3389/fmars.2019.00206.Google Scholar

Francis, J. A., Vavrus, S. J. (2015). Evidence for a wavier jet stream in response to rapid Arctic warming. Environment Research Letters, 10, 014005.Google Scholar

Frierson, D. M., Hwang, Y. T., Fučkar, N. S., Seager, R., Kang, S. M., Donohoe, A., Battisti, D. S. (2013). Contribution of ocean overturning circulation to tropical rainfall peak in the Northern Hemisphere. Nature Geoscience, 6(11), 940–944.Google Scholar

Furevik, T., Nilsen, J. Ø. (2005). Large‐scale atmospheric circulation variability and its impacts on the Nordic Seas ocean climate: A review. In Drange, H., Dokken, T., Furevik, T., Gerdes, R., and Berge, W. (eds.) The Nordic Seas: An Integrated Perspective, AGU Monograph, vol. 158. Washington, DC: American Geophysical Union, pp. 105–136.Google Scholar

Furue, R., Mccreary, J. P., Benthuysen, J., Phillips, H. E., Bindoff, N. L. (2013). Dynamics of the leeuwin current: Part 1. Coastal flows in an inviscid, variable-density, layer model. Dynamics of Atmospheres and Oceans, 63, 24–59.Google Scholar

Fyfe, J. C., Saenko, O. A. (2006). Simulated changes in the extratropical Southern Hemisphere winds and currents. Geophysical Research Letters, 33. L06701, doi:10.1029/2005GL025332.Google Scholar

Ganachaud, A., Wunsch, C. (2000). Improved estimates of global ocean circulation, heat transport and mixing from hydrographic data. Nature, 408, 453–457.Google Scholar

García-Herrera, R., Calvo, N., Garcia, R. R., Giorgetta, M. A. (2006). Propagation of ENSO temperature signals into the middle atmosphere: A comparison of two general circulation models and ERA-40 reanalysis data. Journal of Geophysical Research, 111, D06101, doi:10.1029/2005JD006061.Google Scholar

García-Serrano, J., Losada, T., Rodríguez-Fonseca, B. (2011). Extratropical atmospheric response to the Atlantic Niño decaying phase. Journal of Climate, 24(6), 1613–1625.Google Scholar

Gentemann, C. L., Fewings, M. R., García-Reyes, M. (2017). Satellite sea surface temperatures along the West Coast of the United States during the 2014–2016 northeast Pacific marine heat wave. Geophysical Research Letters, 44, 312–319.CrossRef Google Scholar

Gille, S. T. (2002). Warming of the Southern Ocean since the 1950s. Science, 295, 1275–1277.Google Scholar

Gille, S. T. (2008). Decadal-scale temperature trends in the Southern Hemisphere ocean. Journal of Climate, 21(18), 4749–4765.Google Scholar

Gille, S. T. (2014). Meridional displacement of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. A372, 20130273.Google Scholar

Glessmer, M. S., Eldevik, T., Våge, , Nilsen, K., Behrens, J. E. Ø., E. (2014). Atlantic origin of observed and modelled freshwater anomalies in the Nordic Seas. Nature Geoscience, 7, 801–805.CrossRef Google Scholar

Goldenberg, S. B., Landsea, C. W., Mestas-Nuñez, A. M., Gray, W. M. (2001). The recent increase in Atlantic hurricane activity: Causes and implications. Science, 293(5529), 474–479.Google Scholar

Gordon, A. L. Baker, F. W. G. (eds.) (1969). Oceanography: Volume 46 in Annals of the International Geophysical Year. Oxford: Pergamon Press.Google Scholar

Gordon, A. L. (1986). Interocean exchange of thermocline water. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans, 91(C4), 5037–5046.Google Scholar

Gordon, A. L. (2005). The Indonesian seas. Oceanography, 18(4), 14–27.Google Scholar

Griesel, A., Gille, S. T., Sprintall, J., McClean, J. L., LaCasce, J. H., Maltrud, M. E. (2010). Isopycnal diffusivities in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current inferred from Lagrangian floats in an eddying model. Journal of Geophysical Research, 115, C06006, doi:10.1029/2009JC005821.Google Scholar

Gu, D., Philander, S. G. H. (1997). Interdecadal climate fluctuations that depend on exchanges between the tropics and extratropics. Science, 275, 805–807.Google Scholar

Guan, Z. Y., Yamagata, T. (2003). The unusual summer of 1994 in East Asia: IOD teleconnections. Geophysical Research Letters, 30, doi:10.1029/2002GL016831.Google Scholar

Haarsma, R. J., Hazeleger, W. (2007). Extratropical atmospheric response to equatorial Atlantic cold tongue anomalies. Journal of Climate, 20(10), 2076–2091.Google Scholar

Haine, T. W. N., Curry, B., Gerdes, R., Hansen, E., Karcher, M., Lee, C., Rudels, B., Spreen, G., Steur, L., Stewart, K. D., Woodgate, R. (2015). Arctic freshwater export: Status, mechanisms, and prospects. Global Planetary Change, 125, 13–35.Google Scholar

Han, W. Q., Vialard, J., McPhaden, M. J., Lee, T., Matsumoto, Y., Feng, M., de Ruijter, W. P. M. (2014). Indian Ocean decadal variability: a review. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 95(11), 1679–1703.Google Scholar

Hansen, B., Østerhus, S. (2000). North Atlantic–Nordic Seas exchanges. Progress in Oceanography, 45, 109–208.Google Scholar

Hansen, B., Turrell, W. R., Østerhus, S. (2001). Decreasing overflow from the Nordic seas into the Atlantic Ocean through the Faroe Bank channel since 1950. Nature, 411, 928–930.Google Scholar

Hartmann, D. L. (2015). Pacific sea surface temperature and the winter of 2014. Geophysical Research Letters, 42, 1894–1902.Google Scholar

Hayes, S. P., Behringer, D. W., Blackmon, M., Hansen, D. V., Lau, N.-C.; Leetmaa, A., Philander, S. G. H., Pitcher, E. J., Ramage, C. S., Rasmusson, E. M., Sarachik, E. S., Taft, B. A. (1986). The Equatorial Pacific Ocean Climate Studies (EPOCS) plans: 1986–1988, EOS rans. AGU, 67, 442–444.Google Scholar

Hayes, S. P., Mangum, L. J., Picaut, J., Sumi, A., Takeuchi, K. (1991). TOTA TAO: A moored array for real-time measurements in the tropical Pacific Ocean. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 72, 339–347.Google Scholar

Haumann, F. A., Gruber, N., Münnich, M., Frenger, I., Kern, S. (2016). Sea ice transport driving Southern Ocean salinity and its recent trends. Nature, 537, 89–92.Google Scholar

Helland-Hansen, B., Nansen, F. (1909). The Norwegian Sea: Its physical oceanography based upon the Norwegian researchers 1900–1904. In Hjort, J. (ed.), Report on Norwegian Fishery and Marine Investigations, II. Oslo: The Royal Department of Trade, Navigation and Industries.Google Scholar

Hellerman, S., Rosenstein, M. (1983). Normal monthly wind stress over the world ocean with error estimates. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 13(7), 1093–1104.Google Scholar

Hirst, A. C., Godfrey, J. (1993). The role of Indonesian throughflow in a global ocean GCM. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 23, 1057–1086.Google Scholar

Hu, K. M., Huang, G., Huang, R. H. (2011). The impact of tropical Indian Ocean variability on summer surface air temperature in China. Journal of Climate, 24, 5365–5377.Google Scholar

Hu, K. M., Huang, G., Wu, R. (2013). A strengthened influence of ENSO on August high temperature extremes over the southern Yangtze River valley since the late 1980s. Journal of Climate, 26, 2205–2221.Google Scholar

Hu, Z.-Z., Kumar, A., Jha, B., Zhu, J., Huang, B. (2017). Persistence and predictions of the remarkable warm anomaly in the northeastern Pacific Ocean during 2014–16. Journal of Climate, 30, 689–702.Google Scholar

Huang, G., Hu, K. M., Xie, S.-P. (2010). Strengthening of tropical Indian Ocean teleconnection to the northwest Pacific since the mid-1970s: An atmospheric GCM study. Journal of Climate, 23, 5294–5304CrossRef Google Scholar

Hurrell, J. W. (1995). Decadal trends in the North Atlantic Oscillation: regional temperatures and precipitation. Science, 269(5224), 676–679.Google Scholar

IPCC (2013). Summary for Policymakers. In Stocker, T. F., Qin, D., Plattner, G. K., Tignor, M., Allen, S. K., Boschung, J., Nauels, A., Xia, Y., Bex, V., and Midgley, P. M. (eds.) Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 3–29.Google Scholar

Iskandar, I., Masumoto, Y., Mizuno, K. (2009). Subsurface equatorial zonal current in the eastern Indian Ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research, 114, C06005.Google Scholar

Izumo, T., Montegut, C. B., Luo, J.-J., Behera, S. K., Masson, S., Yamagata, T. (2008). The role of the Western Arabian Sea upwelling in Indian monsoon rainfall variability. Journal of Climate, 21, 5603–5623.Google Scholar

Izumo, T., Vialard, J., Lengaigne, J., de Boyer Montegut, M., Behera, C., Luo, S. K., Cravatte, J.-J., Masson, S., Yamagata, S., T. (2010). Influence of the state of the Indian Ocean Dipole on the following year's El Niño. Nature Geoscience, 3, 168–172.Google Scholar

Jones, J. M., Gille, S. T., Goosse, H., Abram, N. J., Canziani, P. O., Charman, D. J., Clem, K. R., Crosta, X., de Lavergne, C., Eisenman, I., England, M. H., Fogt, R. L., Frankcombe, R. M., Marshall, G. J., Masson-Delmotte, V., Morrison, A. K., Orsi, A. J., Raphael, M. N., Renwick, J. A., Schneider, D. P., Simpkins, G. R., Steig, E. J., Stenni, B., Swingedouw, D., Vance, T. R. (2016). Assessing recent trends in high-latitude Southern Hemisphere surface climate. Nature Climate Change, 6, 917–926.Google Scholar

Jouanno, J., Hernandez, O., Sanchez-Gomez, E. (2017). Equatorial Atlantic interannual variability and its relation to dynamic and thermodynamic processes. Earth System Dynamics, 8(4), 1061–1069.CrossRef Google Scholar

Kao, H. Y., Yu, J.-Y. (2009). Contrasting Eastern-Pacific and Central-Pacific types of ENSO. Journal of Climate, 22, 615–632.Google Scholar

Karcher, M. J., Gerland, S., Harms, I. H., Iosjpe, M., Heldal, H. E., Kershaw, P. J., Sickel, M. (2004). The dispersion of 99Tc in the Nordic Seas and the Arctic Ocean: A comparison of model results and observations. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, 74(1–3), 185–198.Google Scholar

Karoly, D. J. (1989). Southern Hemisphere circulation features associated with El Niño–Southern Oscillation events. Journal of Climate, 2, 1239–1252.Google Scholar

Kawase, H., Abe, M., Yamada, Y., Takemura, T., Yokohata, T., Nozawa, T. (2010). Physical mechanism of long‐term drying trend over tropical North Africa. Geophysical Research Letters, 37(9), L09706, doi:10.1029/2010GL043038.Google Scholar

Keenlyside, N. S., Latif, M. (2007). Understanding equatorial Atlantic interannual variability. Journal of Climate, 20(1), 131–142.Google Scholar

Kerr, R. A. (2000). A North Atlantic climate pacemaker for the centuries. Science, 288(5473), 1984–1985.Google Scholar

Kessler, W. S., Rothstein, L. M., Chen, D. (1998). The annual cycle of SST in the eastern tropical Pacific, diagnosed in an ocean GCM. Journal of Climate, 11, 777–799.Google Scholar

Kiladis, G. N., von Storch, H., van Loon, H. (1989). Origin of the South Pacific Convergence Zone. Journal of Climate, 2, 1185–1195.Google Scholar

Kim, S. T., Yu, J.-Y. (2012). The two types of ENSO in CMIP5 models, Geophysical Research Letters, 39, L11704, doi:10.1029/2012GL05200.Google Scholar

Klein, S. A., Soden, B. J, Lau, N.-C. (1999). Remote sea surface temperature variations during ENSO: Evidence for a tropical atmospheric bridge. Journal of Climate, 12: 917–932.Google Scholar

Knight, J. R., Allan, R. J., Folland, C. K., Vellinga, M., Mann, M. E. (2005). A signature of persistent natural thermohaline circulation cycles in observed climate. Geophysical Research Letters, 32(20), L20708, doi:10.1029/2005GL024233.Google Scholar

Kosaka, Y., Xie, S.-P. (2013). Recent global-warming hiatus tied to equatorial Pacific surface cooling. Nature, 501(7467), 403–407.Google Scholar

Kossin, J. P., Vimont, D. J. (2007). A more general framework for understanding Atlantic hurricane variability and trends. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 88(11), 1767–1782.Google Scholar

Kostov, Y., Armour, K. C., Marshall, J. (2014). Impact of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation on ocean heat storage and transient climate change. Geophysical Research Letters, 41(6), 2108–2116.Google Scholar

Kostov, Y., Marshall, J., Hausmann, U., Armour, K. C., Ferreira, D., Holland, M. M. (2016). Fast and slow responses of Southern Ocean sea surface temperature to SAM in coupled climate models. Climate Dynamics, 48, 1595–1609.Google Scholar

Kucharski, F., Bracco, A., Yoo, J. H., Molteni, F. (2007). Low-frequency variability of the Indian monsoon–ENSO relationship and the tropical Atlantic: The “weakening” of the 1980s and 1990s. Journal of Climate, 20(16), 4255–4266.Google Scholar

Kucharski, F., Bracco, A., Yoo, J. H., Molteni, F. (2008). Atlantic forced component of the Indian monsoon interannual variability. Geophysical Research Letters, 35(4), L04706, doi:10.1029/2007GL033037.Google Scholar

Kucharski, F., Bracco, A., Yoo, J. H., Tompkins, A. M., Feudale, L., Ruti, P., Dell'Aquila, A. (2009). A Gill–Matsuno‐type mechanism explains the tropical Atlantic influence on African and Indian monsoon rainfall. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 135(640), 569–579.Google Scholar

Kucharski, F., Ikram, F., Molteni, F., Farneti, R., Kang, I. S., No, H. H., Mogensen, K. (2016). Atlantic forcing of Pacific decadal variability. Climate Dynamics, 46(7–8), 2337–2351.Google Scholar

Kug, J. S., Li, T., An, S.-I., Kang, I. S., Luo, J. J., Masson, S., Yamagata, T. (2006). Role of the ENSO–Indian Ocean coupling on ENSO variability in a coupled GCM. Geophysical Research Letters, 33, L09710, doi:10.1029/2005GL024916.Google Scholar

Kug, J.-S., Jin, F.-F., An, S.-I. (2009). Two types of El Niño events: Cold tongue El Niño and warm pool El Niño. Journal of Climate, 22, 1499–1515.Google Scholar

Kwok, R., Comiso, J. C. (2002). Spatial patterns of variability in Antarctic surface temperature: Connections to the South Hemisphere annular mode and the Southern Oscillation. Geophysical Research Letters, 29, L1705, 10.1029/2002GL015415 .Google Scholar

Lambert, E., Bars, D. L., de Ruijter, W. P. (2016). The connection of the Indonesian Throughflow, South Indian Ocean Countercurrent and the Leeuwin Current. Ocean Science, 12(3), 771–780.Google Scholar

Larkin, N. K., Harrison, D. E. (2005). On the definition of El Niño and associated seasonal average U.S. weather anomalies. Geophysical Research Letters, 32, L13705, doi:10.1029/2005GL022738.Google Scholar

Latif, M., Barnett, T. P. (1994). Causes of decadal climate variability over the North Pacific and North America. Science, 266, 634–637.Google Scholar

Lau, N. C., Nath, M. J. (1996). The role of the “atmospheric bridge” in linking tropical Pacific ENSO events to extratropical SST anomalies. Journal of Climate, 9, 2036–2057.2.0.CO;2>CrossRef Google Scholar

Lee, T. (2004). Decadal weakening of the shallow overturning circulation in the South Indian Ocean. Geophysical Research Letters, 31(18), L18305, doi.org/10.1029/2004GL020884.Google Scholar

Lee, T., McPhaden, M. J. (2008). Decadal phase change in large-scale sea level and winds in the Indo-Pacific region at the end of the 20th century. Geophysical Research Letters, 35, L01605, doi:10.1029/2007GL032419.Google Scholar

Lee, T., McPhaden, M. J. (2010). Increasing intensity of El Niño in the central-equatorial Pacific. Geophysical Research Letters, 37, L14603, doi.org/10.1029/2010GL044007.Google Scholar

Lee, S.-K., Park, W., Baringer, M. O., Gordon, A. L., Huber, B., Liu, Y. (2015). Pacific origin of the abrupt increase in Indian Ocean heat content during the warming hiatus. Nature Geoscience, 8(6), 445–449.Google Scholar

Legeckis, R. (1977). Long waves in the eastern equatorial Pacific: A view of a geostationary satellite, Science, 197, 1177–1181.Google Scholar

Levine, A. F. Z., McPhaden, M. J., Frierson, D. M. W. (2017). The impact of the AMO on multidecadal ENSO variability. Geophysical Research Letters, 44, 3877–3886.Google Scholar

Li, C., Wu, L., Chang, C.-P. (2011). A far-reaching footprint of the tropical Pacific meridional mode on the summer rainfall over the Yellow River Loop Valley. Journal of Climate, 24, 2585–2598.Google Scholar

Li, T, Wang, B., Chang, C.-P., Zhang, Y. (2003). A theory for the Indian Ocean dipole–zonal mode. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 60, 2119–2135.Google Scholar

Li, T., Philander, S. G. H. (1996). On the annual cycle of the eastern equatorial Pacific. Journal of Climate, 9, 2986–2998.Google Scholar

Li, X., Xie, S.-P., Gille, S. T., Yoo, C. (2016). Atlantic-induced pan-tropical climate change over the past three decades. Nature Climate Change, 6(3), 275.Google Scholar

Li, Y. L., Han, W. Q., Zhang, L. (2017). enhanced decadal warming of the southeast Indian Ocean during the recent global surface warming slowdown. Geophysical Research Letters, 44(19), 9876–9884.Google Scholar

Liang, Y.-C., Yu, J.-Y., Saltzman, E. S., Wang, F. (2017). Linking the tropical Northern Hemisphere pattern to the Pacific warm blob and Atlantic cold blob. Journal of Climate, 30, 9041–9057.Google Scholar

Liebmann, B., Mechoso, C. R. (2011). The South American Monsoon System. The global monsoon system. In Chang, C-P, Ding, Y, Lau, N-C (eds.) The Global Monsoon System: Research and Forecast, 2nd edn. Singapore: World Scientific Publication Company, pp. 137–157.Google Scholar

Linkin, M. E., Nigam, S. (2008). The North Pacific Oscillation–West Pacific teleconnection pattern: Mature-phase structure and winter impacts. Journal of Climate, 21, 1979–1997.Google Scholar

Liu, J., Curry, A. J., Martinson, D. G. (2004). Interpretation of recent Antarctic sea ice variability. Geophysical Research Letters, 31, L02205, doi: 10.1029/2003GL018732.Google Scholar

Liu, Q. Y., Feng, M., Wang, D., Wijffels, S. (2015). Interannual variability of the Indonesian Throughflow transport: A revisit based on 30-year expendable bathythermograph data. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 120(12), 8270–8282.Google Scholar

Lique, C., Steele, M. (2012). Where can we find a seasonal cycle of the Atlantic water temperature within the Arctic Basin? Journal of Geophysical Research, 117, C03026 doi:10.1029/2011JC007612.Google Scholar

López‐Parages, J., Rodríguez‐Fonseca, B. (2012). Multidecadal modulation of El Niño influence on the Euro‐Mediterranean rainfall. Geophysical Research Letters, 39(2), L02704, doi: 10.1029/2011GL050049.Google Scholar

Losada, T., Rodríguez-Fonseca, B., Mechoso, C. R., Ma, H.-Y. (2007). Impacts of SST anomalies on the North Atlantic atmospheric circulation: A case study for the northern winter 1995/1996. Climate Dynamics, 29(7–8), 807–819.Google Scholar

Losada, T., Rodríguez-Fonseca, B., Polo, I., Janicot, S., Gervois, S., Chauvin, F., Ruti, P. (2010). Tropical response to the Atlantic Equatorial mode: AGCM multimodel approach. Climate Dynamics, 35(1), 45–52.Google Scholar

Losada, T., Rodríguez‐Fonseca, B., Kucharski, F. (2012). Tropical influence on the summer Mediterranean climate. Atmospheric Science Letters, 13(1), 36–42.Google Scholar

Losada, T., Rodríguez-Fonseca, B. (2016). Tropical atmospheric response to decadal changes in the Atlantic Equatorial Mode. Climate Dynamics, 47 (3–4), 1211–1224.Google Scholar

Lozier, M. S., Li, F., Bacon, S., Bahr, F., Bower, A. S., Cunningham, S. A., de Jong, M. F., de Steur, L., Fischer, J., Gary, S. F., Greenan, B. J. W. (2019). A sea change in our view of overturning in the subpolar North Atlantic. Science, 363(6426), 516–521.Google Scholar

Luo, J. J., Sasaki, W., Masumoto, Y. (2012). Indian Ocean warming modulates Pacific climate change. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(46), 18701–18706.Google Scholar

Lübbecke, J. F., Rodríguez‐Fonseca, B., Richter, I., Martín‐Rey, M., Losada, T., Polo, I., Keenlyside, N. S. (2018). Equatorial Atlantic variability: Modes, mechanisms, and global teleconnections. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, 9(4), e527.Google Scholar

Ma, C.-C., Mechoso, C. R., Robertson, A. W., Arakawa, A. (1996). Peruvian stratus clouds and the tropical Pacific circulation: A coupled ocean–atmosphere GCM study. Journal of Climate, 9, 1635–1645.Google Scholar

Mann, M. E., Zhang, Z., Rutherford, S., Bradley, R. S., Hughes, M. K., Shindell, D., Ammann, C., Faluvegi, G., Ni, F. (2009). Global signatures and dynamical origins of the Little Ice Age and Medieval Climate Anomaly. Science, 326(5957), 1256–1260.Google Scholar

Mantua, N. J., Hare, S. R., Zhang, Y., Wallace, J. M., Francis, R. C. (1997). A Pacific interdecadal climate oscillation with impacts on salmon production. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 78, 1069–1079.Google Scholar

Manzini, E., Giorgetta, M. A., Esch, M., Kornblueh, L., Roeckner, E. (2006). The influence of sea surface temperatures on the northern winter stratosphere: Ensemble simulations with the MAECHAM5 model. Journal of Climate, 19, 3863–3881.Google Scholar

Marshall, G. J. (2003). Trends in the Southern Annular Mode from observations and reanalyses. Journal of Climate, 16, 4134–4143.Google Scholar

Marshall, J., Kushnir, Y., Battisti, D., Chang, P., Czaja, A., Dickson, R., et al. (2001). North Atlantic climate variability: Phenomena, impacts and mechanisms. International Journal of Climatology, 21(15), 1863–1898.Google Scholar

Marshall, J., Donohoe, A., Ferreira, D., McGee, D. (2014). The ocean’s role in setting the mean position of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone. Climate Dynamics, 42(7–8), 1967–1979.Google Scholar

Martín-Rey, M., Rodríguez-Fonseca, B., Polo, I., Kucharski, F. (2014). On the Atlantic–Pacific Niños connection: A multidecadal modulated mode. Climate Dynamics, 43(11), 3163–3178.Google Scholar

Martín-Rey, M., Polo, I., Rodríguez-Fonseca, B., Losada, T., Lazar, A. (2018). Is there evidence of changes in tropical Atlantic variability modes under AMO phases in the observational record? Journal of Climate, 31, 515–536.Google Scholar

Mauritzen, C. (1996). Production of dense overflow waters feeding the North Atlantic across the Greenland–Scotland Ridge. Part 1: Evidence for a revised circulation scheme. Deep Sea Research, 43, 769–806.Google Scholar

McCreary, J. P., Lu, P. (1994). On the interaction between the subtropical and the equatorial oceans: The subtropical cell. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 24, 466–497.Google Scholar

McGregor, S., Timmermann, A., Stuecker, M. F., England, M. H., Merrifield, M., Jin, F.-F., Chikamoto, Y. (2014). Recent Walker circulation strengthening and Pacific cooling amplified by Atlantic warming. Nature Climate Change, 4(10), 888.Google Scholar

McPhaden, M. J., Busalacchi, A. J., Cheney, R., Donguy, J. R., Gage, K. S., Halpern, D., Ji, M., Julian, P., Meyers, G., Mitchum, G. T., Niiler, P. P., Picaut, J., Reynolds, R. W., Smith, N., Takeuchi, K. (1998). The Tropical Ocean-Global Atmosphere (TOGA) observing system: A decade of progress. Journal of Geophysical Research, 103, 14169–14240.Google Scholar

McPhaden, M. J., Zhang, D. (2002). Slowdown of the meridional overturning circulation in the upper Pacific Ocean. Nature, 415, 603–608.Google Scholar

McPhaden, M. J., Zhang, D. (2004). Pacific Ocean circulation rebounds. Geophysical Research Letters, 31 , L18301, doi: 10.1029/2004GL020727.Google Scholar

McPhaden, M. J., Cronin, M. F., McClurg, D. C. (2008). Meridional structure of the surface mixed layer temperature balance on seasonal time scales in the eastern tropical Pacific. Journal of Climate, 21, 3240–3260.Google Scholar

McPhaden, M. J., Meyers, G., Ando, K., Masumoto, Y., Murty, V. S. N., Ravichandran, M., Syamsudin, F., Vialard, J., Yu, L., Yu, W. (2009). RAMA: The research moored array for African-Asian-Australian monsoon analysis and prediction. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 90, 459–480.Google Scholar

McPhaden, M. J., Busalacchi, A. J., Anderson, D. L. T. (2010). A TOGA retrospective. Oceanography, 23, 86–103.Google Scholar

McPhaden, M. J., Lee, T., McClurg, D. (2011). El Niño and its relationship to changing background conditions in the tropical Pacific Ocean. Geophysical Research Letters, 38, L15709, doi.org/10.1029/2011GL048275.Google Scholar

McPhaden, M. J. Nagura, M. (2014). Indian Ocean Dipole interpreted in terms of Recharge Oscillator theory. Climate Dynamics, 42, 1569–1586.Google Scholar

McPhaden, M. J., Wang, Y., Ravichandran, M. (2015). Volume transports of the Wyrtki Jets and their Relationship to the Indian Ocean Dipole. Journal of Geophysical Research, 120, 5302–5317.Google Scholar

Mechoso, C. R., Lyons, S. W., Spahr, J. A. (1990). The impact of sea surface temperature anomalies on the rainfall over northeast Brazil. Journal of Climate, 3, 812–826.Google Scholar

Mechoso, C. R., Lyons, S. W. (1988). On the atmospheric response to SST anomalies associated with the Atlantic warm event during 1984. Journal of Climate, 1, 422–428.Google Scholar

Medred, C. (2014). Unusual species in Alaska waters indicate parts of Pacific warming dramatically. Alaska Dispatch News, September 14, 2014, www.adn.com/article/20140914/unusual-speciesalaska-waters-indicate-parts-pacific-warming-dramatically.Google Scholar

Meehl, G. A., Arblaster, J. M. (2001). The tropospheric biennial oscillation and Indian monsoon rainfall. Geophysical Research Letters, 28, 1731–1734.Google Scholar

Meehl, G. A., Aixue, H., Santer, B. D., Xie, S.-P. (2016). Contribution of the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation to twentieth-century global surface temperature trends. Nature Climate Change, 6, 1005–1008.Google Scholar

Meredith, M. P. Hogg, A. M. (2006). Circumpolar response of Southern Ocean eddy activity to changes in the Southern Annular Mode. Geophysical Research Letters, 3, L16608, doi.org/10.1029/2006GL026499.Google Scholar

Meyers, G., Bailey, R. J., Worby, A. P. (1995). Geostrophic transport of Indonesian throughflow. Deep Sea Research, 42(7), 1163–1174.Google Scholar

Minobe, S. (1999). Resonance in bidecadal and pentadecadal climate oscillations over the North Pacific: Role in climatic regime shifts. Geophysical Research Letters, 26, 855–858.Google Scholar

Miyama, T., McCreary, J. P. Jr., Jensen, T. G., Loschnigga, J., Godfrey, S., Ishida, A. (2003). Structure and dynamics of the Indian-Ocean cross-equatorial cell. Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography, 50(12–13), 2023–2047.Google Scholar

Mo, K. C., Livezey, R. E. (1986). Tropical-extratropical geopotential height teleconnections during the Northern Hemisphere winter. Monthly Weather Review, 114, 2488–2515.Google Scholar

Mo, K. C. (2000). Relationships between interdecadal variability in the Southern Hemisphere and sea surface temperature anomalies. Journal of Climate, 13, 3599–3610.Google Scholar

Mohino, E., Janicot, S., Bader, J. (2011). Sahel rainfall and decadal to multi-decadal sea surface temperature variability. Climate Dynamics, 37(3–4), 419–440.CrossRef Google Scholar

Murakami, H., Vecchi, G. A., Delworth, T. L., Wittenberg, A. T., Underwood, S., Gudgel, R., Yang, X., Jia, L., Zeng, F., Paffendorf, K., Zhanga, W. (2017). Dominant role of subtropical Pacific warming in extreme eastern Pacific hurricane seasons: 2015 and the future. Journal of Climate, 30, 243–264.Google Scholar

Myers, T. A., Mechoso, C. R., Cesana, G. V., DeFlorio, M. J., Waliser, D. E. (2018). Cloud feedback key to marine heatwave off Baja California. Geophysical Research Letters, 45, doi:10.1029/2018GL078242.Google Scholar

Newman, M., Shin, S.-I., Alexander, M. A. (2011). Natural variation in ENSO flavors. Geophysical Research Letters, L14705, doi:10.1029/2011GL047658.Google Scholar

Newman, M., Alexander, M. A., Aultc, T. R., Cobb, K. M., Clara Deser, C., Di Lorenzo, E., Mantua, N. J., Miller, A. J., Minobe, S., Nakamura, H., Schneider, N., Vimontk, D. J., Phillips, A. S., Scott, J. D., Smith, C. A. (2016). The Pacific decadal oscillation, revisited. Journal of Climate, 29, 4399–4427.Google Scholar

Ng, B., Cai, W., Walsh, K. (2014). The role of the SST-thermocline relationship in Indian Ocean Dipole skewness and its response to global warming. Science Reports, 4, 6034.Google Scholar

Niiler, P. P., Sybrandy, A., Bi, K., Poulain, P., Bitterman, D. (1995). Measurements of the water-following capability of Holey-sock and TRISTAR drifters. Deep Sea Research, Part I, 42, 1951–1964.Google Scholar

Nilsen, J. E. Ø., Falck, E. (2006). Variations of mixed layer properties in the Norwegian Sea for the period 1948–1999. Progress in Oceanography, 70(1), 58–90.Google Scholar

Nnamchi, H. C., Li, J., Anyadike, R. N. (2011). Does a dipole mode really exist in the South Atlantic Ocean? Journal of Geophysical Research, 116(D15), 104, doi:10.1029/2010JD015579.Google Scholar

Nnamchi, H. C., Li, J., Kucharski, F., Kang, I. S., Keenlyside, N. S., Chang, P., Farneti, R. (2015). Thermodynamic controls of the Atlantic Niño. Nature Communications, 6, 8895.Google Scholar

Nnamchi, H. C., Li, J., Kucharski, F., Kang, I. S., Keenlyside, N. S., Chang, P., Farneti, R. (2016). An equatorial–extratropical dipole structure of the Atlantic Niño. Journal of Climate, 29(20), 7295–7311.Google Scholar

Nnamchi, H. C., Kucharski, F., Keenlyside, N. S., Farneti, R. (2017). Analogous seasonal evolution of the South Atlantic SST dipole indices. Atmospheric Science Letters, 18(10), 396–402.Google Scholar

Nobre, P., Shukla, J. (1996). Variations of sea surface temperature, wind stress, and rainfall over the tropical Atlantic and South America. Journal of Climate, 9(10), 2464–2479.Google Scholar

Nøst, O. A., Isachsen, P. E. (2003). The large‐scale time‐mean ocean circulation in the Nordic Seas and Arctic Ocean estimated from simplified dynamics. Journal of Marine Research, 61, 175–210.Google Scholar

Okumura, Y., Xie, S.-P. (2004). Interaction of the Atlantic equatorial cold tongue and the African monsoon. Journal of Climate, 17(18), 3589–3602.Google Scholar

Okumura, Y. M. Deser, C. (2010). Asymmetry in the duration of El Niño and La Niña. Journal of Climate, 23, 5826–5843.Google Scholar

Olsen, S.M., Hansen, B., Quadfasel, D., Østerhus, S. (2008). Observed and modelled stability of overflow across the Greenland–Scotland ridge. Nature, 455, 519–522.Google Scholar

Onarheim, I., Eldevik, T., Smedsrud, L. H. and Stroeve, J. C., J. C. (2018). Seasonal and regional manifestation of Arctic sea ice loss. Journal of Climate, 31(12), 4917–4932.Google Scholar

Orsi, A. H., Whitworth, T., Nowlin, W. D. (1995). On the Meridional Extent and Fronts of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. Deep-Sea Research I, 42(5), 641–673.CrossRef Google Scholar

Overland, J. E., Wang, M., Salo, S. (2008). The recent Arctic warm period. Tellus, 60A, 589–597.Google Scholar

Overland, J. E., Francis, J. A., Hall, R., Hanna, E., Kim, S.-J., Vihma, T. (2015). The melting Arctic and midlatitude weather patterns: Are they connected? Journal of Climate, 28, 7917–7932.Google Scholar

Overland, J., Dunlea, E., Box, J. E., Corell, R., Forsius, M., Kattsov, V., Olsen, M., Pawlak, J., Reiersen, L.-O., Wang, M. (2019). The urgency of Arctic change. Polar Science, doi:10.1016/j.polar.2018.11.008.CrossRef Google Scholar

Østerhus, , Woodgate, S., Valdimarsson, R., Turrell, H., de Steur, B., Quadfasel, L., Olsen, D., Moritz, S. M., Lee, M., Larsen, C. M., Jónsson, K. M. H., Johnson, S., Jochumsen, C., Hansen, K., Curry, B., Cunningham, B., Berx, S., B. (2019). Arctic Mediterranean exchanges: A consistent volume budget and trends in transports from two decades of observations. Ocean Science, 15, 379–399, doi:10.5194/os-15-379-2019.Google Scholar

Paek, H., Yu, J.-Y., Qian, C. (2017). Why were the 2015/16 and 1997/98 Extreme El Niños different? Geophysical Research Letters, 44, 1848–1856.Google Scholar

Palóczy, A., Gille, S. T., McClean, J. L. (2018). Oceanic heat delivery to the Antarctic continental shelf: Large‐scale, Low‐frequency variability. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 123 (11), 7678–7701.Google Scholar

Paolo, F. S., Fricker, H. A., Padman, L. (2015). Volume loss from Antarctic ice shelves is accelerating. Science, 348, 327–331.Google Scholar

Paolo, F. S., Padman, L., Fricker, H. A., Adusumilli, S., Howard, S., Siegfried, M. R. (2018). Response of Pacific-sector Antarctic ice shelves to the El Niño /Southern oscillation. Nature Geoscience, 11, 121–126.Google Scholar

Peterson, B. J., McClelland, J., Curry, R., Holmes, R. M., Walsh, J. E., Aagaard, K. (2006). Trajectory shifts in the Arctic and Subarctic freshwater cycle. Science, 313, 1061–1066.Google Scholar

Peterson, W., Robert, M., Bond, N. (2015). The warm Blob continues to dominate the ecosystem of the northern California Current. PICES Press, 23(2), North Pacific Marine Science Organization, Sidney, BC, Canada, 44–46, www.pices.int/publications/pices_press/volume23/PPJuly2015.pdf.Google Scholar

Philander, S. G. H., Gu, D., Halpern, D., Lambert, G., Lau, N.-C., Li, T., Pacanowski, R. C. (1996). Why the ITCZ is mostly north of the equator. Journal of Climate, 9, 2958–2972.Google Scholar

Polo, I., Rodríguez-Fonseca, B., Losada, T., García-Serrano, J. (2008). Tropical Atlantic variability modes (1979–2002). Part I: Time-evolving SST modes related to West African rainfall. Journal of Climate, 21(24), 6457–6475.Google Scholar

Polvani, L. M., Waugh, D. W., Correa, G. J. P. Son, S.-W. (2011). Stratospheric ozone depletion: The main drive of twentieth-century atmospheric circulation changes in the Southern Hemisphere. Journal of Climate, 24, 795–812.Google Scholar

Polyakov, I., et al. (2005). One more step toward a warmer Arctic. Journal of Geophysical Research, 32, L17605, doi:10.1029/2005GL023740.Google Scholar

Polyakov, I. V., Pnyushkov, A. V., Alkire, M. B., Ashik, I. M., Baumann, T. M., Carmack, E. C., Goszczko, I., Guthrie, J., Ivanov, V. V., Kanzow, T., Krishfield, R., Kwok, R., Sundfjord, A., Morison, J., Rember, R., Yulin, A. (2017). Greater role for Atlantic inflows on sea-ice loss in the Eurasian Basin of the Arctic Ocean. Science, 356, 285–291.Google Scholar

Pritchard, H. D., Ligtenberg, S. R., Fricker, H. A., Vaughan, D. G., van den Broeke, M. R., Padman, L. (2012). Antarctic ice-sheet loss driven by basal melting of ice shelves. Nature, 484, 502–505.Google Scholar

Qu, X., Huang, G. (2012). Impacts of tropical Indian Ocean SST on the meridional displacement of East Asian jet in boreal summer. International Journal of Climatology, 32, 2073–2080.Google Scholar

Rao, S. A., Dhakate, A. R., Saha, S. K., Mahapatra, S., Chaudhari, H. S., Pokhrel, S., Sahu, S., K. (2012). Why is Indian Ocean warming consistently? Climatic Change, 110(3–4), 709–719.Google Scholar

Rahul, S., Gnanaseelan, C. (2013). Net heat flux over the Indian Ocean: Trends, driving mechanisms, and uncertainties. IEEE Geoscience Remote Sensing, 10(4), 776–780.Google Scholar

Raphael, M. N., Marshall, G. J., Turmer, J., Fogt, R. L., Schneider, D., Dixon, D. A., Hosking, J. S., Jones, J. M., Hobbs, W. R. (2016). The Amundsen Sea low: Variability, change, and impact on Antarctic climate. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 97, 111–121.Google Scholar

Rasmusson, E. M., Carpenter, T. H. (1982). Variations in tropical sear surface temperature and surface wind fields associated with the Southern Oscillation/El Niño. Monthly Weather Review, 110, 354–384.Google Scholar

Rayner, N. A., Parker, D. E., Horton, E. B., Folland, C. K., Alexander, L. V., Rowell, D. P., Kent, E. C., Kaplan, A. (2003). Global analyses of sea surface temperature, sea ice, and night marine air temperature since the late nineteenth century. Journal of Geophysical Research, 108, 4407.Google Scholar

Reppin, J., Schott, F. A., Fischer, J., Quadfasel, D. (1999). Equatorial currents and transports in the upper central Indian Ocean: Annual cycle and interannual variability. Journal of Geophysical Research, 104, 15495–15514.Google Scholar

Rignot, E., Jacobs, S. S. (2002). Rapid bottom melting widespread near Antarctic Ice Sheet grounding lines. Science, 296, 2020–2023.Google Scholar

Rignot, E., Bamber, J. L., van den Broeke, M. R., Davis, C., Li, Y., van de Berg, W. J., van Meijgaard, E. (2008). Recent Antarctic ice mass loss from radar interferometry and regional climate modelling. Nature Geoscience, 1, 106–110.Google Scholar

Rignot, E., Jacobs, S., Mouginot, J., Scheuchl, B. (2013). Ice-shelf melting around Antarctica, Science, 341, 266–270.Google Scholar

Rodriguez, A., Mazloff, M., Gille, S. T. (2016). An oceanic heat transport pathway to the Amundsen Sea Embayment. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 121, 3337–3349.Google Scholar

Rodríguez-Fonseca, B., Polo, I., García-Serrano, J., Losada, T., Mohino, E., Mechoso, C. R., Kucharski, F. (2009). Are Atlantic Niños enhancing Pacific ENSO events in recent decades? Geophysical Research Letters, 36, L20705, doi:10.1029/2009GL040048.Google Scholar

Rodríguez‐Fonseca, B., Janicot, S., Mohino, E., Losada, T., Bader, J., Caminade, C., Fontaine, F. C. B., García‐Serrano, J., Gervois, S., Joly, M., Polo, I., Ruti, P., Roucou, P., Voldoire, A. (2011). Interannual and decadal SST‐forced responses of the West African monsoon. Atmospheric Science Letters, 12(1), 67–74.Google Scholar

Rodríguez-Fonseca, B., Mohino, E., Mechoso, C. R., Caminade, C., Biasutti, M., Gaetani, M., et al. (2015). Variability and predictability of West African droughts: A review on the role of sea surface temperature anomalies. Journal of Climate, 28(10), 4034–4060.Google Scholar

Roemmich, D, Church, J, Gilson, J, Monselesan, D, Sutton, P, Wijffels, S. (2015). Unabated planetary warming and its ocean structure since 2006. Nature Climate Change, 5, 240–245.Google Scholar

Rogers, J. C. (1981) The North Pacific Oscillation. International Journal of Climatology, 1, 39–57.Google Scholar

Ropelewski, C. F. Halpert, M. C. (1986). North American precipitation and temperature patterns associated with the El Niño/Southern Oscillation. Monthly Weather Review, 114, 2352–2362.Google Scholar

Ruiz-Barradas, A., Carton, J. A., Nigam, S. (2000). Structure of interannual-to-decadal climate variability in the tropical Atlantic sector. Journal of Climate, 13(18), 3285–3297.Google Scholar

Ruprich-Robert, Y., Msadek, R., Castruccio, F., Yeager, S., Delworth, T., Danabasoglu, G. (2017). Assessing the climate impacts of the observed Atlantic multidecadal variability using the GFDL CM2. 1 and NCAR CESM1 global coupled models. Journal of Climate, 30(8), 2785–2810.Google Scholar

Ruprich-Robert, Y., Delworth, T., Msadek, R., Castruccio, F., Yeager, S., Danabasoglu, G. (2018). Impacts of the Atlantic multidecadal variability on North American summer climate and heat waves. Journal of Climate, 31(9), 3679–3700.Google Scholar

Saji, N. H., Goswami, B. N., Vinayachandran, P. N., Yamagata, T. (1999). A dipole mode in the tropical Indian Ocean. Nature, 401, 360–363.Google Scholar

Sassi, F., Kinnison, D., Boville, B. A., Garcia, R. R., Roble, R. (2004). Effect of El Niño–Southern Oscillation on the dynamical, thermal, and chemical structure of the middle atmosphere. Journal of Geophysical Research, 109, D17108, doi:10.1029/2003JD004434.Google Scholar

Schmidtko, S., Heywood, K. J., Thompson, A. F., Aoki, S. (2014). Multidecadal warming of Antarctic waters. Science, 346, 1227–1231.Google Scholar

Schneider, D. P., Okumura, Y., Deser, C. (2012). Observed Antarctic interannual climate variability and tropical linkages. Journal of Climate, 25, 4048–4066.Google Scholar

Schott, F. A., McCreary, J. P., Johnson, G. C. (2004). Shallow overturning circulations of the tropical‐subtropical oceans. Earth's Climate, 147, 261–304.Google Scholar

Schott, F. A., Xie, S.-P., McCreary, J. P. (2009). Indian Ocean circulation and climate variability. Reviews of Geophysics, 47(1), doi.org/10.1029/2007RG000245.Google Scholar

Seager, R., Hoerling, M., Schubert, S., Wang, H., Lyon, B., Kumar, , Nakamura, J., Henderson, N. (2014). Causes and predictability of the 2011–14 California drought. Assessment Rep., NOAA/OAR/Climate Program Office, 42 pp., http://cpo.noaa.gov/MAPP/californiadroughtreport.Google Scholar

Seager, R., Hoerling, M., Schubert, S., Wang, H., Lyon, B., Kumar, , Nakamura, J., Henderson, N. (2015). Causes of the 2011–14 California drought. Journal of Climate, 28, 6997–7024.Google Scholar

Servain, J., Wainer, I., McCreary, J. P., Dessier, A. (1999). Relationship between the equatorial and meridional modes of climate variability in the tropical Atlantic. Geophysical Research Letters, 26, 458–488.Google Scholar

Shao, A., Gille, S. T., Mecking, S., Thompson, L. (2015). Properties of the Subantarctic Front and Polar Front from the skewness of sea level anomaly. Journal of Geophysical Research - Oceans, 120, 5179–5193.Google Scholar

Smedsrud, L. H., Esau, I., Ingvaldsen, R. B., Eldevik, T., Haugan, P. M., Li, C., Lien, V. S., Olsen, A., Omar, A. M., Otterå, O. H., Risebrobakken, B., Sandø, A. B., Semenov, V. A., Sorokina, S. A. (2013). The role of the Barents Sea in the Arctic climate system. Reviews of Geophysics, 51, 415–449.Google Scholar

Smith, T. M., Reynolds, R. W., Peterson, T. C., Lawrimore, J. (2008). Improvements to NOAA’s historical merged land–ocean surface temperature analysis (1880–2006). Journal of Climate, 21(10), 2283–2296.Google Scholar

Sokolov, S., Rintoul, S. R. (2009). Circumpolar structure and distribution of the Antarctic circumpolar current fronts: 1. Mean circumpolar paths. Journal of Geophysical Research, 114, C11018, doi:10.1029/2008JC005108.Google Scholar

Spall, M. A., Pickart, R. S. (2001). Where does dense water sink? A subpolar gyre example. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 31, 810–825.Google Scholar

Spall, M. A. (2011) On the role of eddies and surface forcing in the heat transport and overturning circulation in marginal seas. Journal of Climate, 24, 4844–4858.Google Scholar

Speer, K., Rintoul, S. R., Sloyan, B. (2000). The Diabatic Deacon Cell. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 30, 3212–3222.Google Scholar

Stammerjohn, S. E., Martinson, D. G., Smith, R. C., Yuan, X., Rind, D. (2008). Trends in Antarctic annual sea ice retreat and advance and their relation to El Niño-Southern Oscillation and Southern Annular Mode variability. Journal of Geophysical Research, 108, C03S90, doi:10.1029/2007JC004269.Google Scholar

Stewart, A. L. Thompson, A. F. (2015). Eddy-mediated transport of warm Circumpolar Deep Water across the Antarctic shelf break. Geophysical Research Letters, 42, 432–440.Google Scholar

Straneo, F. (2006). On the connection between dense water formation, overturning, and poleward heat transport in a convective basin. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 36, 1822–1840.Google Scholar

Sultan, B., Janicot, S. (2003). The West African monsoon dynamics. Part II: The “preonset” and “onset” of the summer monsoon. Journal of Climate, 16(21), 3407–3427.Google Scholar

Sutton, R. T., Hodson, D. L. (2005). Atlantic Ocean forcing of North American and European summer climate. Science, 309(5731), 115–118.Google Scholar

Svendsen, L., Hetzinger, S., Keenlyside, N., Gao, Y. (2014). Marine‐based multiproxy reconstruction of Atlantic multidecadal variability. Geophysical Research Letters, 41(4), 1295–1300.Google Scholar

Swain, D. L., Tsiang, M., Haugen, M., Singh, D., Charland, A., Rajaratnam, B., Diffenbaugh, N. S. (2014). The extraordinary California drought of 2013/2014: Character, context, and the role of climate change. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 95, S3–S7.Google Scholar

Swart, N. C., Fyfe, J. C., Hawkins, E., Kay, J. E., Jahn, A. (2015). Influence of internal variability on Arctic sea-ice trends. Nature Climate Change, 5 (2), 86–89.Google Scholar

Swart, N. C., Gille, S. T., Fyfe, J. C., Gillett, N. (2018). Drivers of Southern Ocean warming and freshening. Nature Geosciences, 11, 836–841.Google Scholar

Talley, L. D. (2011). Descriptive Physical Oceanography: An Introduction. Oxford: Academic Press.Google Scholar

Tamsitt, V., Drake, H., Morrison, A. K., Talley, L. D., Dufour, C. O., Gray, A. R., Griffies, S. M., Mazloff, M. R., Sarmiento, J. L., Wang, J., Weijer, W. (2017). Spiraling pathways of global deep waters to the surface of the Southern Ocean. Nature Communications, 8(1), 172. doi: 10.1038/s41467-017-00197-0.Google Scholar

Terray, L. (2012). Evidence for multiple drivers of North Atlantic multi‐decadal climate variability. Geophysical Research Letters, 39(19), L19712, doi: 10.1029/2012GL053046.Google Scholar

Thompson, D. W. J., Wallace, J. M., Hegerl, G. C. (2000). Annular modes in the extratropical circulation. Part II: Trends. Journal of Climate, 13, 1018–1036.Google Scholar

Thompson, D. W. J., Solomon, S., Kushner, P. J., England, M. H., Grise, K. M., Karoly, D. J. (2011). Signatures of the Antarctic ozone hole in Southern Hemisphere surface climate change, Nature Geoscience, 4(11), 741–749.Google Scholar

Thompson, A. F., Sallee, J. B. (2012). Jets and topography: Jet transitions and the impact on transport in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 42, 956–972.Google Scholar

Thompson, R. O. (1984). Observations of the Leeuwin current off Western Australia. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 14(3), 623–628.Google Scholar

Ting, M., Kushnir, Y., Seager, R., Li, C. (2009). Forced and internal twentieth-century SST trends in the North Atlantic. Journal of Climate, 22(6), 1469–1481.Google Scholar

Tokinaga, H., Xie, S.-P. (2011). Weakening of the equatorial Atlantic cold tongue over the past six decades. Nature Geoscience, 4(4), 222.Google Scholar

Tozuka, T., Luo, J., Masson, S., et al. (2007). Decadal modulations of the Indian Ocean Dipole in the SINTEX-F1 coupled GCM. Journal of Climate, 20, 2881–2894.Google Scholar

Torralba, V., Rodríguez-Fonseca, B., Mohino, E., Losada, T. (2015). The non-stationary influence of the Atlantic and Pacific Niños on North Eastern South American rainfall. Frontiers in Earth Science, 3, 55, doi:10.3389/feart.2015.00055.Google Scholar

Trenberth, K. E., (2005). Uncertainty in hurricanes and global warming. Science, 308(5729), 1753–1754.Google Scholar

Trenberth, K. E. (2015). Has there been a hiatus? Science, 349, 691–692.Google Scholar

Tulloch, R., Ferrari, R., Jahn, O., Klocker, A., LaCasce, J., Ledwell, J. R., Marshall, J., Messias, , Speer, M., Watson, A. (2014). Direct estimate of lateral eddy diffusivity upstream of Drake passage. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 44, 2593–2616.Google Scholar

Ummenhofer, C. C., England, M. H., McIntosh, P. C., et al. (2009). What causes southeast Australia's worst droughts? Geophysical Research Letters, 36 (4), L04706, doi: 10.1029/2008GL036801.Google Scholar

Ummenhofer, C. C., Biastoch, A., Böning, C. W. (2017). Multidecadal Indian Ocean variability linked to the Pacific and implications for preconditioning Indian Ocean dipole events. Journal of Climate, 30, 1739–1751.Google Scholar

Vecchi, G. A., Clement, A., Soden, B. J. (2008). Examining the tropical Pacific’s response to global warming. EOS Trans Am Geophys Union, 89, 81–83Google Scholar

Vellinga, M., Wood, R. A. (2002). Global climatic impacts of a collapse of the Atlantic thermohaline circulation. Climatic Change, 54(3), 251–267.Google Scholar

Venegas, S. A., Mysak, L. A., Straub, D. N. (1997). Atmosphere–ocean coupled variability in the South Atlantic. Journal of Climate, 10(11), 2904–2920.Google Scholar

Vihma, T. (2014). Effects of Arctic Sea Ice Decline on Weather and Climate: A Review. Surveys in Geophysics, 35, 1175–1214.Google Scholar

Villamayor, J., Ambrizzi, T., Mohino, E. (2018). Influence of decadal sea surface temperature variability on northern Brazil rainfall in CMIP5 simulations. Climate Dynamics, 51(1–2), 563–579.Google Scholar

Vinayachandran, P. N., Saji, N. H., Yamagata, T. (1999). Response of the equatorial Indian Ocean to an unusual wind event during 1994. Geophysical Research Letters, 26: 1613–1616Google Scholar

Walker, G. T., Bliss, E. W. (1932). World weather V. Memoirs of the Royal Meteorological Society, 4, 53–84.Google Scholar

Wallace, J. M., Gutzler, D. S. (1981). Teleconnections in the potential height field during the Northern Hemisphere winter. Monthly Weather Review, 109, 784–812.Google Scholar

Wang, T., Du, Y., Liao, X. (2017). The regime shift in the 1960s and associated atmospheric change over the southern Indian Ocean. Acta Oceanologica Sinica, 36(1), 1–8.Google Scholar

Wang, Y., McPhaden, M. J. (2017). Seasonal cycle of cross-equatorial flow in the central Indian Ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research, 122(5). 3817–3827.Google Scholar

Webster, P. J., Moore, A. M., Loschnigg, J. P., Leben, R. R. (1999). Coupled ocean–atmosphere dynamics in the Indian Ocean during 1997–98. Nature, 401 , 356–360.Google Scholar

Woodgate, R. A., Aagaard, K., Weingartner, T. J. (2005). A year in the physical oceanography of the Chukchi Sea: Moored measurements from autumn 1990–1991. Deep Sea Research, Part II, 52, 3116–3149.Google Scholar

Woodgate, R. A., Weingartner, T., Lindsay, R, (2010). The 2007 Bering Strait oceanic heat flux and anomalous Arctic sea-ice retreat. Geophysical Research Letters, 37, L01602, doi:10.1029/2009GL041621.Google Scholar

Wu, B., Li, T., Zhou, T. J. (2010). Relative contributions of the Indian Ocean and local SST anomalies to the maintenance of the western north Pacific anomalous anticyclone during the El Niño decaying summer. Journal of Climate, 23, 2974–2986.Google Scholar

Wu, R., Kirtman, B. P., Krishnamurthy, V. (2008). An asymmetric mode of tropical Indian Ocean rainfall variability in boreal spring. Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres, 113, D05104, doi:10.1029/2007JD009316Google Scholar

Wu, R., Yeh, S. W. (2010). A further study of the tropical Indian Ocean asymmetric mode in boreal spring. Journal of Geophysical Research, 115, D08101, doi:10.1029/2009JD012999Google Scholar

Wyrtki, K. (1973). An equatorial jet in the Indian Ocean. Science, 181(4096), 262–264.Google Scholar

Wyrtki, K. (1981). An estimate of equatorial upwelling in the Pacific. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 11, 1205–1214.Google Scholar

Xie, S.-P., Philander, S. G. H. (1994). A coupled ocean–atmosphere model of relevance to the ITCZ in the eastern Pacific. Tellus, 46A, 340–350.Google Scholar

Xie, S.-P., Annamalai, H., Schott, F. A., McCreary, J. P. (2002). Structure and mechanisms of south Indian Ocean climate variability. Journal of Climate, 15, 867–878.Google Scholar

Xie, S.-P., Hu, K., Hafner, J., Tokinaga, H., Du, Y., Huang, G., Sampe, T. (2009). Indian Ocean capacitor effect on Indo-western Pacific climate during the summer following El Niño. Journal of Climate, 22, 730–747.Google Scholar

Xie, S.-P., Kosaka, Y., Du, Y., Hu, K. M., Chowdary, J., Huang, G. (2016). Indo-western Pacific Ocean capacitor and coherent climate anomalies in post-ENSO summer: A review. Advances in Atmospheric Sciences, 33, 411–432.Google Scholar

Xie, S.-P., Kosaka, Y. (2017). What caused the global surface warming hiatus of 1998–2013? Current Climate Change Reports, 3, 128–140.Google Scholar

Xue, Y., Balmaseda, M. A., Boyer, T., Ferry, N., Good, S., Ishikawa, I., Kumar, A., Rienecker, M., Rosati, A. J., Yin, Y. (2012). A comparative analysis of upper-ocean heat content variability from an ensemble of operational ocean reanalyses. Journal of Climate, 25(20), 6905–6929.Google Scholar

Yang, J., Pratt, L. J. (2013). On the effective capacity of the dense-water reservoir for the Nordic Seas overflow: Some effects of topography and wind stress. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 43, 418–431.Google Scholar

Yang, S., Li, Z., Yu, J.-Y., Hu, X., Dong, W., He, S. (2018). El Niño–Southern Oscillation and its impact in the Changing Climate. National Science Review, nwy046.Google Scholar

Yang, Y., Li, J. P., Wu, L. X., Kosaka, Y., Du, Y., Sun, C., Xie, F., Feng, J. (2017). Decadal Indian Ocean dipolar variability and its relationship with the tropical Pacific. Advances in Atmospheric Science, 34, 1282–1289.Google Scholar

Yeh, S. W., Kug, J. S., Dewitte, B., Kwon, M. H., Kirtman, B. P., Jin, F.-F. (2009). El Niño in a changing climate. Nature, 461, 511–514.Google Scholar

Yashayaev, I., Seidov, D. (2015). The role of the Atlantic Water in multidecadal ocean variability in the Nordic and Barents Seas. Progress in Oceanography, 132, 68–127.Google Scholar

Yeh, S.-W., Cai, W., Min, S.-K., McPhaden, M.J., Dommenget, D., Dewitte, B., Collins, M., Ashok, K., An, S.-I., Yim, B.-Y., and Kug, J.-S., 2018: ENSO atmospheric teleconnections and their response to greenhouse gas forcing. Rev. Geophys., 56, 185–206. doi:10.1002/2017RG000568.Google Scholar

Yeo, S.-R., Kim, K. Y. (2015). Decadal changes in the Southern Hemisphere sea surface temperature in association with El Niño–Southern Oscillation and Southern Annular Mode. Climate Dynamics, 45(3–4), 3227–3242.Google Scholar

Yit, S., Bull, C., Van Sebille, E. (2016). Sources, fate, and pathways of Leeuwin Current water in the Indian Ocean and Great Australian Bight: A Lagrangian study in an eddy‐resolving ocean model. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans, 121(3), 1626–1639.Google Scholar

You, Y., Furtado, J. C. (2017). The role of South Pacific atmospheric variability in the development of different types of ENSO. Geophysical Research Letters, 44 (14), 7438–7446.Google Scholar

Yu., J.-Y., Mechoso, C. R. (1999). Links between annual variations of Peruvian stratocumulus clouds and of SSTs in the eastern equatorial Pacific. Journal of Climate, 12, 3305–3318.Google Scholar

Yu, J. Y., Mechoso, C. R., McWilliams, J. C. (2002). Impacts of the Indian Ocean on the ENSO cycle. Geophysical Research Letters, 29, 461–464.Google Scholar

Yu, J.-Y., Lau, K. M. (2004). Contrasting Indian Ocean SST variability with and without ENSO influence: A coupled atmosphere-ocean GCM study. Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics, 90, 179–191.Google Scholar

Yu, J.-Y., Kao, H.-Y., Lee, T. (2010). Subtropics-related interannual sea surface temperature variability in the equatorial central Pacific. Journal of Climate, 23, 2869–2884.Google Scholar

Yu, J.-Y., Lu, M. M., Kim, S. T. (2012a). A change in the relationship between tropical central Pacific SST variability and the extratropical atmosphere around 1990. Environmental Research Letters, 7, 034025.Google Scholar

Yu, J.-Y., Zou, Y., St. Kim, T., Lee, T. (2012b). The Changing Impact of El Niño on US Winter Temperatures. Geophysical Research Letters, 39, L15702, doi:10.1029/2012GL052483.Google Scholar

Yu, J.-Y., Kao, P.-K., Paek, H., Hsu, H.-H., Hung, C.-W., Lu, M.-M., An, S.-I., (2015a). Linking emergence of the Central-Pacific El Niño to the Atlantic multi-decadal Oscillation. Journal of Climate, 28, 651–662.Google Scholar

Yu, J.-Y., Paek, H., Saltzman, E. S., Lee, T. (2015b). The early-1990s change in ENSO-PSA-SAM relationships and its impact on Southern Hemisphere climate. Journal of Climate, 28, 9393–9408.Google Scholar

Yu, J.-Y., Wang, X. Yang, S., Paek, H., Chen, M. (2017). Changing El Niño–Southern Oscillation and associated climate extremes. In Wang, S.-Y., Yoon, J.-H., Funk, C., Gillies, R. R. (ed.) Climate Extremes: Patterns and Mechanisms, vol. 226. AGU Geophysical Monograph Series, pp. 3–38.Google Scholar

Yu, J.-Y. Fang, S. W. (2018). The distinct contributions of the seasonal footprinting and charged-discharged mechanisms to ENSO complexity. Geophysical Research Letters, 45, 6611–6618.Google Scholar

Yu, L. S., Rienecker, M. M. (1999). Mechanisms for the Indian Ocean warming during the 1997–98 El Niño. Geophysical Research Letters, 26, 735–738.Google Scholar

Yuan, D., Liu, H. (2009). Long-wave dynamics of sea level variations during Indian Ocean Dipole events. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 39, 1115–1132.Google Scholar

Yuan, D., Zhou, H., Zhao, X. (2013). Interannual climate variability over the Tropical Pacific Ocean induced by the Indian Ocean Dipole through the Indonesian throughflow. Journal of Climate, 26, 2845–2861.Google Scholar

Yuan, X., Li, C. (2008). Climate modes in southern high latitudes and their impacts on Antarctic sea ice. Journal of Geophysical Research, 113, C06S91, doi:10.1029/2006JC004067.Google Scholar

Yuan, Y., Yang, H., Zhou, W. (2008). Influences of the Indian Ocean dipole on the Asian summer monsoon in the following year. International Journal of Climatology, 28, 1849–1859.Google Scholar

Zaba, K. D., Rudnick, D. L. (2016). The 2014–2015 warming anomaly in the Southern California Current System observed by underwater gliders. Geophysical Research Letters, 43, 1241–1248.Google Scholar

Zebiak, S., 1993: Air–sea interaction in the equatorial Atlantic region. Journal of Climate, 6, 1567–1586.Google Scholar

Zhan, R., Wang, Y., Lei, X. (2011). Contributions of ENSO and East Indian Ocean SSTA to the interannual variability of Northwest Pacific tropical cyclone frequency. Journal of Climate, 24, 509–521.Google Scholar

Zhang, H., Clement, A., Di Nezio, P. (2014). The South Pacific meridional mode: A mechanism for ENSO-like variability. Journal of Climate, 27, 769–783.Google Scholar

Zhang, J., Steele, M., Rothrock, D. A., Lindsay, R. W. (2004). Increasing exchanges at Greenland–Scotland Ridge and their links with the North Atlantic Oscillation and Arctic sea ice. Geophysical Research Letters, 31, L09307, doi:10.1029/2003GL019304.Google Scholar

Zhang, R., Delworth, T. L. (2005). Simulated tropical response to a substantial weakening of the Atlantic thermohaline circulation. Journal of Climate, 18(12), 1853–1860.Google Scholar

Zhang, R., Delworth, T. L. (2006). Impact of Atlantic multidecadal oscillations on India/Sahel rainfall and Atlantic hurricanes. Geophysical Research Letters, 33(17), doi.org/10.1029/2006GL026267.Google Scholar

Zhang, R., Sutton, R., Danabasoglu, G., Delworth, T. L., Kim, W. M., Robson, J., Yeager, S. G. (2016). Comment on “The Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation without a role for ocean circulation.” Science, 352(6293), 1527–1527.Google Scholar

Zhang, W., Vecchi, G. A., Murakami, H., Villarini, G., Jia, L. (2016). The Pacific meridional mode and the occurrence of tropical cyclones in the Western North Pacific. Journal of Climate, 29, 381–398.Google Scholar

Zhang, W., Villarini, G., Vecchi, G. A. (2017). Impacts of the Pacific meridional mode on June–August precipitation in the Amazon River Basin. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 143, 1936–1945.Google Scholar

Zhang, Y., Feng, M., Du, Y., Phillips, H. E., Bindoff, N. L., McPhaden, M. J. (2018). Strengthened Indonesian throughflow drives decadal warming in the southern Indian Ocean. Geophysical Research Letters, 45, 6167–6175.Google Scholar

Zhao, X., Yuan, D., Yang, G., Zhou, H., Wang, J. (2016). Role of the oceanic channel in the relationships between the basin/dipole mode of SST anomalies in the tropical Indian Ocean and ENSO transition. Advances in Atmospheric Sciences, 33, 1386–1400.Google Scholar

Zhang, L., Karnauskas, K. B. (2017). The role of tropical interbasin SST gradients in forcing Walker circulation trends. Journal of Climate, 30(2), 499–508.Google Scholar

Zhang, Y., Wallace, J. M., Battisti, D. S. (1997). ENSO-like interdecadal variability: 1900–93. Journal of Climate, 10, 1004–1020.Google Scholar

Zheng, X., Xie, S.-P., Vecchi, G. A., Liu, Q., Hafner, J. (2010). Indian Ocean dipole response to global warming: Analysis of ocean–atmospheric feedbacks in a coupled model. Journal of Climate, 23, 1240–1253.Google Scholar

Book contents

1 - Variability of the Oceans

Summary

Access options

References

Save book to Kindle

Save book to Dropbox

Save book to Google Drive