Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-kw2vx Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-11T05:38:58.472Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

29 - Hyperprolactinemia

from PART II - INFERTILITY EVALUATION AND TREATMENT

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 August 2010

By
Hany F. Moustafa ,
Ahmet Helvacioglu ,
Botros R. M. B. Rizk ,
Mary George Nawar ,
Christopher B. Rizk ,
Christine B. Rizk ,
Caroline Ragheb ,
David B. Rizk  and
Craig Sherman
Edited by
Botros R. M. B. Rizk ,
Juan A. Garcia-Velasco ,
Hassan N. Sallam  and
Antonis Makrigiannakis
Botros R. M. B. Rizk
Affiliation:
University of South Alabama
Juan A. Garcia-Velasco
Affiliation:
Rey Juan Carlos University School of Medicine,
Hassan N. Sallam
Affiliation:
University of Alexandria School of Medicine
Antonis Makrigiannakis
Affiliation:
University of Crete
Get access

Summary

INTRODUCTION

Prolactin is a polypeptide hormone that was discovered more than seventy years ago and is also known as the lactogenic hormone, lactotropin, luteotropic hormone, or luteotropin (1). It was initially thought that it is only produced by the anterior pituitary gland and is mainly involved with lactation, but now there is increasing evidence that there are many other sources of prolactin and that it is involved in diverse essential biological activities (2).

EMBRYOLOGY OF LACTOTROPHS

Prolactin is produced mainly by the pituitary lactotrophs, which normally comprise about 15–25 percent of the anterior pituitary (3). During embryologic development, the anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) arises from Rathke's pouch (named after German embryologist and anatomist Martin Heinrich Rathke 1793–1860), which is an ectodermal out-pouching of the floor of the primitive mouth that grows upwards and later fuses with the postpituitary (neurohypophysis) that develops as a downward extension from the neuroectoderm of the diencephalon (4, 5).

Several home-domain transcription factors are released during the development of the anterior pituitary and are important in the gene activation and cell-lineage differentiation. The most important of which is Pit-1, which is necessary for the activation of prolactin (PRL), growth hormone (GH), growth hormone–releasing hormone (GHRH), and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) genes. Congenital absence of Pit-1 gene causes a syndrome characterized by deficiency of lactotrophs, somatotrophs, and thyrotrophs (6–8).

Keywords

antihypertensive agentsbromocriptinecabergolinehyperprolactinemiaprolactinomasradiation therapypergolide
Type
Chapter
Information
Infertility and Assisted Reproduction , pp. 270 - 285
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Davis, JR. Prolactin and reproductive medicine. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 2004;16(4):331–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bole-Feysot, C, Goffin, V, Edery, M, Binart, N, Kelly, PA. Prolactin (PRL) and its receptor: actions, signal transduction pathways and phenotypes observed in PRL receptor knockout mice. Endocr Rev 1998;19:225–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rizk, B. (Ed.). Ultrasonography in reproductive medicine and infertility, Cambridge: United Kingdom, Cambridge University Press 2008: (in press).CrossRef
Scully, KM, Rosenfeld, MG. Pituitary development: regulatory codes in mammalian organogenesis. Science 22 2002;295(5563):2231–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenfeld, MG, Briate, P, Dasen, J, Gleiberman, AS. Multistep. Signaling and transcriptional requirements for pituitary organogenesis in vivo. Recent Prog Horm Res 2000;55:1–13.Google ScholarPubMed
Cohen, , Wondisford, FE, Radovick, S. Role of Pit-1 in the gene expression of growth hormone, prolactin, and thyrotropin. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 1996;25:523–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gonzalez-Parra, S, Chowen, JA, Garcia, SL, Argente, J. Ontogeny of pituitary transcription factor-1 (Pit-1), growth hormone (GH) and prolactin (PRL) mRNA levels in male and female rats and the differential expression of Pit-1 in lactotrophs and somatotrophs. J Neuroendocr 1996;8:211–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sharp, ZD. Rat Pit-1 stimulates transcription in vitro by influencing preinitiation complex assembly. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1995;206:40–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nicoll, CS, Mayer, GL, Russell, SM. Structural features of prolactins and growth hormones that can be related to their biological properties. Endocr Rev 1986;7:169–203.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goffin, V, Shiverick, KT, Kelly, PA, Martial, JA. Sequence-function relationships within the expanding family of prolactin, growth hormone, placental lactogen and related proteins in mammals. Endocr Rev 1996;17:385–410.Google ScholarPubMed
Horseman, ND, Yu-Lee, LY. Transcriptional regulation by the helix bundle peptide hormones: growth hormone, prolactin, and hematopoietic cytokines. Endocrinol Rev 1994;15:627–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bazan, JF. Structural design and molecular evolution of a cytokine receptor superfamily. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1990;87:6934–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berwaer, M, Monget, P, Peers, B, Mathy-Hartert, M, Bellefroid, E, Davis, JR, Belayew, A, Martial, JA. Multihormonal regulation of the human prolactin gene expression from 5000 bp of its upstream sequence. Mol Cell Endocrinol 1991;80:53–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berwaer, M, Martial, JA, Davis, JR. Characterization of an up-stream promoter directing extrapituitary expression of the human prolactin gene. Mol Endocrinol 1994;8:635–42.Google ScholarPubMed
Peers, B, Voz, ML, Monget, P, Mathy-Hartert, M, Berwaer, M, et al. Regulatory elements controlling pituitary-specific expression of the human prolactin gene. Mol Cell Biol 1990;10:4690–700.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Truong, AT, Duez, C, Belayew, A, et al. Isolation and characterization of human prolactin gene. EMBO J 1984;3:429–37.Google ScholarPubMed
Sinha, YN. Structural variants of prolactin: occurrence and physiological significance. Endocr Rev 1995;16:354–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Teilum, K, Hoch, JC, Goffin, V, Kinet, S, Martial, JA, Kragelund, BB. Solution structure of human prolactin. J Mol Biol 2005; 351(4):810–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keeler, C, Dannies, PS, Hodsdon, ME. The tertiary structure and backbone dynamics of human prolactin. J Mol Biol 2003; 328(5):1105–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kasic, SV, Ramos, IM, Selim, A, Gunz, G, Morange, S, Enjalbert, A, Martin, PM, Jaquet, P, Brue, T. Macroprolactinemia revisited: a study on 106 patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002;87:581–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hattori, N, Ikekubo, K, Nakaya, Y, Kitagawa, K, Inagaki, C. Immunoglobulin G subclasses and prolactin (PRL) isoforms in macroprolactinemia due to anti-PRL autoantibodies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005;90(5):3036–44. Epub 2005 Feb 1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leanos-Miranda, A, Cardenas-Mondragon, G, Rivera-Leanos, R, Ulloa-Aguirre, A, Goffin, V. Application of new homologous in vitro bioassays for human lactogens to assess the actual bioactivity of human prolactin isoforms in hyperprolactinaemic patients. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2006;65(2):146–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bazan, JF. Haemopoietic receptors and helical cytokines. Immunol Today 1990;11: 350–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rizk, B. Genetics of ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome. In Rizk, B (Ed.), Ovarian Hyperstimulation Syndrome. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006; Chapter 4, pp. 79–91.
Schuler, , Nagel, RM, Gao, J, Horseman, ND, Kessler, MA. Prolactin receptor heterogeneity in fetal and maternal tissues. Endocrinology 1997;138:3187–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bazan, JF. Structural design and molecular evolution of a cytokine receptor superfamily. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1990;87:6934–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kline, JB, Roehrs, H, Clevenger, CV. Functional characterization of the intermediate isoform of the human prolactin receptor. J Biol Chem 1999;274:35461–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trott, JF, Hovey, RC, Koduri, S, Vonderhaar, BK. Alternative splicing to exon 11 of human prolactin receptor gene results in multiple isoforms including a secreted prolactin-binding protein. J Mol Endocrinol 2003;30:31–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herman, A, Bignon, C, Daniel, N, Grosclaude, J, Gertler, A, et al. Functional heterodimerization of prolactin and growth hormone receptors by ovine placental lactogen. J Biol Chem 2000;275:6295–301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Veldhuis, JD, Johnson, ML. Operating characteristics of the hypothalamo-pituitary-gonadal axis in men: circadian, ultradian, and pulsatile release of prolactin and its temporal coupling with luteinizing hormone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1988;67(1):116–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Veldhuis, JD, Evans, WS, Stumpf, PG. Mechanisms that subserve estradiol's induction of increased prolactin concentrations: evidence of amplitude modulation of spontaneous prolactin secretory bursts. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989;161(5):1149–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freeman, ME, Kanyicska, B, Lerant, A, Nagy, G. 2000. Prolactin: structure, function, and regulation of secretion. Physiol Rev 80:1523–631.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berghe, G, Zegher, F, Veldhuis, JD, Wouters, P, Gouwy, S, Stockman, W, Weekers, F, Schetz, M, Lauwers, P, Bouillon, R, Bowers, CY. Thyrotrophin and prolactin release in prolonged critical illness: dynamics of spontaneous secretion and effects of growth hormone-secretagogues. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1997; 47(5):599–612.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ben-Jonathan, N. Dopamine: a prolactin-inhibiting hormone. Endocr Rev 1985;6:564–589.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lerant, A, Freeman, ME. Dopaminergic neurons in periventricular and arcuate nuclei of proestrous and ovariectomized rats: endogenous diurnal rhythm of Fos-related antigens expression. Neuroendocrinology 1997;65:436–445.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Binart, N, Helloco, C, Ormandy, CJ, Barra, J, Clement-Lacroix, P, et al. Rescue of preimplantatory egg development and embryo implantation in prolactin receptor-deficient mice after progesterone administration. Endocrinology 2000;141:2691–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vacher, P, Mariot, P, Dufy-Barbe, L, Nikolics, K, Seeburg, PH, Kerdelhue, B, Dufy, B. The gonadotropin-releasing hormone associated peptide reduces calcium entry in prolactin-secreting cells. Endocrinology 1991;128(1):285–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steele, MK. The role of brain angiotensin II in the regulation of luteinizing hormone and prolactin secretion. Trends Endocrinol Metab 1992;3:295–301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steele, MK, McCann, SM, Negro-Vilar, A. Modulation by dopamine and estradiol of the central effects of angiotensin II on anterior pituitary hormone release. Endocrinology 1982;111: 722–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fessler, RG, Deyo, SN, Meltzer, HY, Miller, RJ. Evidence that the medial and dorsal raphe nuclei mediate serotonergically- induced increases in prolactin release from the pituitary. Brain Res 1984;299:231–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dalcik, H, Phelps, CJ. Median eminence-afferent vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) neurons in the hypothalamus: localization by simultaneous tract tracing and immunocytochemistry. Peptides 1993;14:1059–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Braund, W, Roeger, DC, Judd, SJ. Synchronous secretion of luteinizing hormone and prolactin in the human luteal phase: neuroendocrine mechanisms. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1984;58(2):293–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Christiansen, E, Veldhuis, JD, Rogol, AD, Stumpf, P, Evans, WS. Modulating actions of estradiol on gonadotropin-releasing hormone-stimulated prolactin secretion in postmenopausal individuals. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1987;157(2):320–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kar, LD, Bethea, CL. Pharmacological evidence that serotonergic stimulation of prolactin secretion is mediated via the dorsal raphe nucleus. Neuroendocrinology 1982;35:225–30.Google ScholarPubMed
Takahashi, K, Yoshinoya, A, Arihara, Z, Murakami, O, Totsune, K, Sone, M, Sasano, H, Shibahara, S. Regional distribution of immunoreactive prolactin-releasing peptide in the human brain. Peptides 2000;21(10):1551–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barber, MC, Clegg, RA, Finley, E, Vernon, RG, Flint, DJ. The role of growth hormone, prolactin and insulin-like growth factors in the regulation of rat mammary gland and adipose tissue metabolism during lactation. J Endocrinol 1992;135:195–202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tucker, HA. Lactation and its hormonal control. In Knobil, E, Neill, JD (Eds.), The Physiology of Reproduction, New York: Raven, 1994; pp. 1065–98.Google Scholar
Whitworth, NS. Lactation in humans. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1988;13(1–2):171–88. Review.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Speroff, L, Glass, RH, Kase, NG. Clinical Gynecologic Endocrinology and Infertility. Sixth edition. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 1999. ISNB 0-683-30379-1.Google Scholar
Kruger, TH, Haake, P, Haverkamp, J, Kramer, M, Exton, MS, Saller, B, Leygraf, N, Hartmann, U, Schedlowski, M. Effects of acute prolactin manipulation on sexual drive and function in males. J Endocrinol 2003;179(3):357–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sheth, AR, Mugatwala, PP, Shah, GV, et al. Occurrence of prolactin in human semen. Fertil Steril 1975;26:905–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shah, GV, Desai, RB, Sheth, AR. Effect of prolactin on metabolism of human spermatozoa. Fertil Steril 1976;27:1292–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hernandez-Andrade, E, Villanueva-Diaz, C, Ahued-Ahued, JR. Growth hormone and prolactin in maternal plasma and amniotic fluid during normal gestation. Rev Invest Clin. 2005;57(5):671–5.Google ScholarPubMed
Shennan, DB. Regulation of water and solute transport across mammalian plasma cell membranes by prolactin. J Dairy Res 1994;61:155–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buskila, D, Shoenfeld, Y. Prolactin, bromocriptine and autoimmune diseases. Isr J Med Sci 1996;32:23–7.Google ScholarPubMed
Neidhart, M. Prolactin in autoimmune diseases. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1998;217:408–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walker, SE, Allen, SH, McMurray, RW. Prolactin and autoimmune disease. Trends Endocrinol Metab 1993;4:147–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roky, R, Paut-Pagano, L, Goffin, V, Kitahama, K, Valatx, JL, Kelly, PA, Jouvet, M. Distribution of prolactin receptors in the rat forebrain. Immunohistochemical study. Neuroendocrinology 1996;63:422–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clapp, C, Martial, JA, Guzman, RC, Rentier-Delrue, F, Weiner, RI. The 16-kilodalton N-terminal fragment of human prolactin is a potent inhibitor of angiogenesis. Endocrinology 1993;133:1292–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clapp, C, Torner, L, Gutiérrez-Ospina, G, Alcántara, E, López-Gómez, FJ, Nagano, M, Kelly, PA, Mejía, S, Morales, MA, Martínez de la Escalera, G. The prolactin gene is expressed in the hypothalamic-neurohypophyseal system and the protein is processed into a 14-kDa fragment with activity like 16-kDa prolactin. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994;91:10384–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clapp, C, Weiner, RI. A specific, high affinity, saturable binding site for the 16-kilodalton fragment of prolactin on capillary endothelial cells. Endocrinology 1992;130:1380–6.Google ScholarPubMed
Lissoni, P, Mandala, M, Rovelli, F, Casu, M, Rocco, F, et al. Paradoxical stimulation of prolactin secretion by L-dopa in metastatic prostate cancer and its possible role in prostate- cancer-related hyperprolactinemia. Eur Urol 2000;37:569–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leav, I, Merk, FB, Lee, KF, Loda, M, Mandoki, M, et al. Prolactin receptor expression in the developing human prostate and in hyperplastic, dysplastic, and neoplastic lesions. Am J Pathol 1999;154:863–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Touraine, P, Martini, JF, Zafrani, B, Durand, JC, Labaille, F, et al. Increased expression of prolactin receptor gene assessed by quantitative polymerase chain reaction in human breast tumors versus normal breast tissues. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998; 83:667–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wennbo, H, Gebre-Medhin, M, Gritli-Linde, A, Ohlsson, C, Isaksson, OG, et al. Activation of the prolactin receptor but not the growth hormone receptor is important for induction of mammary tumors in transgenic mice. J Clin Invest 1997;100:2744–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goffin, V, Touraine, P, Pichard, C, Bernichtein, S, Kelly, PA. Should prolactin be reconsidered as a therapeutic target in human breast cancer?Mol Cell Endocrinol 1999;151:79–87.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cheung, CY. Prolactin suppresses luteininzing hormone secretion and pituitary responsiveness to luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone by a direct action at the anterior pituitary. Endocrinology 1983;113:632–638.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milenkovic, L, D'Angelo, G, Kelly, PA, Weiner, RI. Inhibition of gonado tropin hormone-releasing hormone release by prolactin from GIT neuronal cell lines through prolactin receptors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994;91:1244–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glass, MR, Shaw, RW, Butt, WR, et al. An abnormality of estrogen feedback in amenorrhea galactorrhea. Br Med J 1975;3:274–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McNeilly, KP, Glasier, A, Jonassen, J, et al. Evidence for direct inhibition of ovarian function by prolactin. J Reprod Fert 1982; 65:559–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dorrington, JH, Gore-Langton, RE. Antigonadal action of prolactin: further studies on the mechanism of inhibition of follicle stimulating hormone-induced aromatase activity in rat granulosa cell cultures. Endocrinology 1982;110:1701–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McNatty KP, Sawers RS, McNeilly AS. A possible role for prolactin in control of steroid secretion by human graffian follicle. Nature. 1974 Aug 23;250(5468):653–5.
Del Pozo, E, Wyss, H, Tolis, G, et al. Prolactin and deficient luteal function. Obstet Gynecol 1979;53:282–6.Google ScholarPubMed
Feltus, FA, Groner, B, Melner, MH. Stat5-mediated regulation of the human type II 3α hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isomerase gene activation by prolactin. Mol Endocrinol 1999;13:1084–93.Google Scholar
Cameron, DF, Murray, FT, Drylie, DD. Ultrastructural lesions in testes from hyperprolactinemic men. J Androl 1984;5:283–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bahceci, M, Tuzcu, A, Bahceci, S, Tuzcu, S. Is hyperprolactinemia associated with insulin resistance in non-obese patients with polycystic ovary syndrome?J Endocrinol Invest 2003;26(7):655–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Isik, AZ, Gulekli, B, Zorlu, CG, Ergin, T, Gokmen, O. Endocrinological and clinical analysis of hyperprolactinemic patients with and without ultrasonically diagnosed polycystic ovarian changes. Gynecol Obstet Invest 1997;43(3):183–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tanaka, T, Fujimoto, S. Endocrinological environment of polycystic ovarian disease. Horm Res 1990;33 (Suppl. 2):5–9. Review.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Minakami, H, Abe, N, Oka, N, Kimura, K, Tamura, T, Tamada, T. Prolactin release in polycystic ovarian syndrome. Endocrinol Jpn 1988;35(2):303–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tyson, JB, Ito, P, Guyda, H, et al. Studies of prolactin in human pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1972;113:14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tyson, JE, Friesen, HG. Factors influencing the secretion of human prolactin and growth hormone in menstrual and gestational women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1973;116:377.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barberia, JM, Abu-FAdil, S, Kletzky, OA, Nakamura, RM, Mishell, DR Jr. Serum prolactin patterns in early human gestation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1975;121:1107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kleinberg, DL, Noel, GL, Frantz, AG. Galactorrhea: a study of 235 cases, including 48 with pituitary tumors. N Engl J Med 1977; 296:589.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alexander, JM, Biller, BMK, Bikkal, H, et al. Clinically nonfunctioning pituitary tumors are monoclonal in origin. J Clin Invest 1990;86:336.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herman, V, Fagin, J, Gonsky, R, et al. Clonal origin of pituitary adenomas. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1990;71:1427.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhang, X, Horwitz, GA, Heaney, AP, et al. Pituitary tumor transforming gene (PTTG) expression in pituitary adenomas. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999;84:761.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ezzat, S, Zheng, L, Zhu, XF, et al. Targeted expression of a human pituitary tumor-derived isoform of FGF receptor-4 recapitulates pituitary tumorigenesis. J Clin Invest 2002;109:69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corenblum, B, Sirek, AMT, Horvath, E, et al. Human mixed somatotrophic and lactotrophic pituitary adenomas. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1976;42:857.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mindermann, T, Wilson, CB. Age-related and gender-related occurrence of pituitary adenomas. Clin Endocrinol 1994;41:359.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Delgrange, E, Trouillas, J, Maiter, D, et al. Sex-related difference in the growth of prolactinomas: a clinical and proliferation marker study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997;82:2102.Google ScholarPubMed
Prosser, PR, Karam, JH, Townsend, JJ, et al. Prolactin-secreting pituitary adenomas in multiple endocrine adenomatosis, type 1. Ann Intern Med 1979;91:41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walker, JD, Grossman, A, Anderson, JV, et al. Malignant prolactinoma with extracranial metastases: a report of three cases. Clin Endocrinol 1993;38:411.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Petakov, MS, Damjanovic, SS, Nikolic-Durovic, MM, et al. Pituitary adenomas secreting large amounts of prolactin may give false low values in immunoradiometric assays. The hook effect. J Endocrinol Invest 1998;21:184.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
St-Jean, E, Blain, F, Comtois, R. High prolactin levels may be missed by immunoradiometric assay in patients with macroprolactinomas. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1996;44:305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barkan, AL, Chandler, WF. Giant pituitary prolactinoma with falsely low serum prolactin: the pitfall of the “high-dose hook effect.” Neurosurgery 1998;42:913.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
David, SR, Taylor, CC, Kinon, BJ, Breier, A. The effects of olanzapine, rispiridone, and haloperiodol on plasma prolactin levels in patients with schizophrenia. Clin Ther 2000;22:1085.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rivera, JL, Lal, S, Ettigi, P, et al. Effect of acute and chronic neuroleptic therapy on serum prolactin levels in men and women of different age groups. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1976;5:273.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCallum, RW, Sowers, JR, Hershman, JM, et al. Metoclopramide stimulates prolactin secretion in man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1976;42:1148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mancini, AM, Guitelman, A, Vargas, CA, et al. Effect of sulpiride on serum prolactin levels in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1976;42:181.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sowers, JR, Sharp, B, McCallum, RW. Effect of domperidone, an extracerebral inhibitor of dopamine receptors, on thyrotropin, prolactin, renin, aldosterone, and 181hydroxycorticosterone secretion in man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1982;54:869.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steiner, J, Cassar, J, Maslliter, K, et al. Effect of methyldopa on prolactin and growth hormone. Br Med J 1976;1:1186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, PA, Kelly, MR, Wallin, JD. Increased prolactin levels during reserpine treatment of hypertensive patients. JAMA 1976;235:2316.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fearrington, EL, Rand, CH, Rose, JD. Hyperprolactinemia- galactorrhea induced by verapamil. Am J Cardiol 1983;51:1466.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Veldhuis, JD, Borges, JLC, Drake, CR. Divergent influences of the structurally dissimilar calcium entry blockers, diltiazem and verapamil, on the thyrotropin- and gonadotropin-releasing hormone-stimulated anterior pituitary hormone secretion in man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1985;60:144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cowen, PJ, Sargent, PA. Changes in plasma prolactin during SSRI treatment: evidence for a delayed increase in 5-HT neurotransmission. J Psychopharmacol 1997;11:345.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meltzer, H, Bastani, B, Jayathilake, K, Maes, M. Fluoxetine, but not tricyclic antidepressants, potentiates the 5-hydroxytryptophan-mediated increase in plasma cortisol and prolactin secretion in subjects with major depression or with obsessive compulsive disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 1997;17:1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Honbo, KS, Herle, AJ, Kellett, KA. Serum prolactin levels in untreated primary hypothyroidism. Am J Med 1978;64:782.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Snyder, PJ, Jacobs, LS, Utiger, RD, Daughaday, WH. Thyroid hormone inhibition of the prolactin response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone. J Clin Invest 1973;52:2324.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Groff, TR, Shulkin, BL, Utiger, RD, Talbert, LM. Amenorrhea-galactorrhea, hyperprolactinemia, and suprasellar pituitary enlargement as presenting features of primary hypothyroidism. Obstet Gynecol 1984;63:86S.Google ScholarPubMed
Grubb, MR, Chakeres, D, Malarkey, WB. Patients with primary hypothyroidism presenting as prolactinomas. Am J Med 1987;83:765.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morley, JE, Hodgkinson, DH, Kalk, WJ. Galactorrhea and hyperprolactinemia associated with chest wall injury. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1977;45:931.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lim, VS, Kathpalia, SC, Frohman, . Hyperprolactinemia and impaired pituitary response to suppression and stimulation in chronic renal failure: reversal after transplantation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1979;48:101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sievertsen, GD, Lim, VS, Nakawatase, C, Frohman, . Metabolic clearance and secretion rates of human prolactin in normal subjects and patients with chronic renal failure. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1980;50:846.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schlechte, I, Dolan, K, Sherman, B, et al. The natural history of untreated hyperprolactinemia: a prospective analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1989;68:412.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martin, TL, Kim, M, Malarkey, WB. The natural history of idiopathic hyperprolactinemia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1985;60:855.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sluijmer, AV, Lappohn, RE. Clinical history and outcome of 59 patients with idiopathic hyperprolactinemia. Perth Steril 1992;58:72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carlson, HE, Markoff, E, Lee, DW. On the nature of serum prolactin in two patients with macroprolactinemia. Perth Steril 1992; 58:78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vallette-Kasic, S, Morange-Ramos, I, Selim, A, et al. Macroprolactinemia revisited: a study on 106 patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002;87:581.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olukoga, AO, Kane, JW. Macroprolactinaemia: validation and application of the polyethylene glycol precipitation test and clinical characterization of the condition. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1999;51:119.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leslie, H, Courtney, CH, Bell, PM, et al. Laboratory and clinical experience in 55 patients with macroprolactinemia identified by a simple polyethylene glycol precipitation method. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86:2743.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Strachan, MW, Teoh, WL, Don-Wauchope, AC, et al. Clinical and radiological features of patients with macroprolactinaemia. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2003;59:339.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gibney, J, Smith, TP, McKenna, TJ. Clinical relevance of macroprolactin. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2005;62:633.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gomez, F, Reyes, FI, Faiman, C. Nonpuerperal galactorrhea and hyperprolactinemia. Clinical findings, endocrine features and therapeutic responses in 56 cases. Am J Med 1977;62:648.Google ScholarPubMed
Schlechte, J, Sherman, B, Halmi, N, et al. Prolactin-secreting pituitary tumors in amenorrheic women: a comparative study. Endocr Rev 1980;1:295.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seppala, M, Hirvonen, E, Ranta, T. Hyperprolactinemia and luteal insufficiency. Lancet 1976;1:229.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corenblum, B, Fairaudeau, N, Shewchux, AB. Prolactin hypersecretion and short luteal phase defects. Obstet Gynecol 1976;47:486.Google ScholarPubMed
Biller, BMK, Baum, HBA, Rosenthal, DI, et al. Progressive trabecular osteopenia in women with hyperprolactinemic amenorrhea. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1992;75:692.Google ScholarPubMed
Schlechte, J, Walkner, L, Kathol, M. A longitudinal analysis of premenopausal bone loss in healthy women and women with hyperprolactinemia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1992;75:698.Google ScholarPubMed
Colao, A, Di Somma, C, Loche, S, et al. Prolactinomas in adolescents: persistent bone loss after 2 years of prolactin normalization. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2000;52:319.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kleinberg, DL, Noel, GL, Frantz, AG. Galactorrhea: a study of 235 cases, including 48 with pituitary tumors. N Engl J Med 1977; 296:589.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carter, JN, Tyson, JE, Tolis, G, et al. Prolactin-secreting tumors and hypogonadism in 22 men. N Engl J Med 1978;299:847.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Segal, S, Yaffe, H, Laufer, N, Ben-David, M. Male hyperprolactinemia: effects on fertility. Fertil Steril 1979;32:556.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Di Somma, C, Colao, A, Di Sarno, A, et al. Bone marker and bone density responses to dopamine agonist therapy in hyperprolactinemic males. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998;83:807.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Casanueva, FF, Molitch, ME, Schlechte, JA, et al. Guidelines of the Pituitary Society for the diagnosis and management of prolactinomas. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2006;65:265.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
St-Jean, E, Blain, F, Comtois, R. High prolactin levels may be missed by immunoradiometric assay in patients with macroprolactinomas. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1996;44:305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Petakov, MS, Damjanovic, SS, Nikolic-Durovic, MM, et al. Pituitary adenomas secreting large amounts of prolactin may give false low values in immunoradiometric assays. The hook effect. J Endocrinol Invest 1998;21:184.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barkan, AL, Chandler, WF. Giant pituitary prolactinoma with falsely low serum prolactin: the pitfall of the “high-dosehook effect”: case report. Neurosurgery 1998;42:913.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Casanueva, FF, Molitch, ME, Schlechte, JA, et al. Guidelines of the Pituitary Society for the diagnosis and management of prolactinomas. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2006;65:265.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schlechte, J, Dolan, K, Sherman, B, et al. The natural history of untreated hyperprolactinemia: a prospective analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1989;68:412.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sisam, DA, Sheehan, JP, Sheeler, LR. The natural history of untreated microprolactinoma. Fertil Steril 1987;48:67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Costello, RT. Subclinical adenoma of the pituitary gland. Am J Pathol 1936;12:191.Google ScholarPubMed
Kraus, HE. Neoplastic diseases of the human hypophysis. Arch Pathol 1945;39:343.Google Scholar
Burrow, GN, Wortzman, G, Rewcastle, NB, Holgate, RC, Kovacs, K. Microadenomas of the pituitary and abnormal sellar tomograms in an unselected autopsy series. New Eng J Med 1981;304:156.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vance, ML, Evans, WS, Thorner, MO. Drugs five years later. Bromocriptine. Ann Intern Med 1984;100:78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Webster, J, Piscitelli, MD, Polli, A, et al. A comparison of cabergoline and bromocriptine in the treatment of hyperprolactinemic amenorrhea. N Engl J Med 1994;331:904.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Biller, BMK, Molitch, ME, Vance, ML, et al. Treatment of prolactin-secreting macroadenomas with the once-weekly dopamine agonist cabergoline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996;81:2338.Google ScholarPubMed
Verhelst, J, Abs, R, Maiter, D, et al. Cabergoline in the treatment of hyperprolactinemia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999;84:2518.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rizk, B. Treatment of ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome. In Rizk, B (Ed.), Ovarian Hyperstimulation Syndrome. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006; Chapter 8, pp. 200–26.
Kleinberg, DL, Boyd, AE 3rd., Wardlaw, S, et al. Pergolide for the treatment of pituitary tumors secreting prolactin or growth hormone. N Engl J Med 1983;309:704.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schade, R, Andersohn, F, Suissa, S, Haverkamp, W, Garbe, E. Dopamine agonists and the risk of cardiac-valve regurgitation. N Engl J Med. 2007 Jan 4;356(1):29–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zanettini, R, Antonini, A, Gatto, G, Gentile, R, Tesei, S, Pezzoli, G. Valvular heart disease and the use of dopamine agonists for Parkinson's disease. N Engl J Med. 2007 Jan 4;356(1):39–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simonis, G, Fuhrmann, JT, Strasser, RH. Meta-analysis of heart valve abnormalities in Parkinson's disease patients treated with dopamine agonists. Mov Disord. 2007 Oct 15;22(13):1936–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Antonini, A, Poewe, W. Fibrotic heart-valve reactions to dopamine-agonist treatment in Parkinson's disease. Lancet Neurol. 2007 Sep;6(9):826–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kletzky, OA, Vermesh, M. Effectiveness of vaginal bromocriptine in treating women with hyperprolactinemia. Fertil Steril. 1989;51:269.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Motta, T, Vincentiis, S, Marchini, M, et al. Vaginal cabergoline in the treatment of hyperprolactinemic patients intolerant to oral dopaminergics. Fertil Steril. 1996;65:440.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leong, KS, Foy, PM, Swift, AC, et al. CSF rhinorrhoea following treatment with dopamine agonists for massive invasive prolactinomas. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2000;52:43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vance, ML, Lipper, M, Klibanski, A, et al. Treatment of prolactin secreting pituitary macroadenomas with the long acting nonergot dopamine agonist CV 205502. Ann Intern Med. 1990;112:668.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beckers, A, Petrossians, P, Abs, R, et al. Treatment of macroprolactinomas with the long-acting and repeatable form of bromocriptine: a report on 29 cases. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1992;75:275.Google ScholarPubMed
,, Lely, AL, Brownell, J, Lamberts, SW. The efficacy and tolerability of CV 205-502 (a nonergot dopaminergic drug) in macroprolactinoma patients and in prolactinoma patients intolerant to bromocriptine. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1991;72:1136.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Molitch, ME. Macroprolactinoma size reduction with dopamine agonists. Endocrinologist. 1997;7:390.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Molitch, ME, Elton, RL, Blackwell, RE, et al. Bromocriptine as primary therapy for prolactin secreting macroadenomas: results of a prospective multicenter study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1985;60:698.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moster, ML, Savino, PJ, Schatz, NJ, et al. Visual function in prolactinoma patients treated with bromocriptine. Ophthalmology. 1985;92:1332.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosa, M, Colao, A, Di Sarno, A, et al. Cabergoline treatment rapidly improves gonadal function in hyperprolactinemic males: a comparison with bromocriptine. Eur J Endocrinol. 1998;138:286.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosa, M, Zarrilli, S, Vitale, G, et al. Six months of treatment with cabergoline restores sexual potency in hyperprolactinemic males: an open longitudinal study monitoring nocturnal penile tumescence. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89:621.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Colao, A, Vitale, G, Cappabianca, P, et al. Outcome of cabergoline treatment in men with prolactinoma: effects of a 24-month treatment on prolactin levels, tumor mass, recovery of pituitary function, and semen analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89:1704.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Warfield, A, Finkel, DM, Schatz, NJ, et al. Bromocriptine treatment of prolactin-secreting pituitary adenomas may restore pituitary function. Ann Intern Med. 1984;101:783.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turkalj, I, Braun, P, Krupp, P, et al. Surveillance of bromocriptine in pregnancy. JAMA. 1982;247:1589.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robert, E, Musatti, L, Piscitelli, G, et al. Pregnancy outcome after treatment with the ergot derivative, cabergoline. Reprod Toxicol 1996;10:333.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ricci, E, Parazzini, F, Motta, T, et al. Pregnancy outcome after cabergoline treatment in early weeks of gestation. Reprod Toxicol 2002;16:791.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liuzzi, A, Dallabonzana, D, Oppizzi, G, et al. Low doses of dopamine agonists in the long-term treatment of macroprolactinomas. N Engl J Med 1985;313:656.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Colao, A, Di Sarno, A, Cappabianca, P, et al. Withdrawal of long-term cabergoline therapy for tumoral and nontumoral hyperprolactinemia. N Engl J Med 2003;349:2023.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thorner, MO, Perryman, RL, Rogol, AD, et al. Rapid changes of prolactinoma volume after withdrawal and reinstitution of bromocriptine. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1981;53:480.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van't Verlaat, JW, Croughs, RJ. Withdrawal of bromocriptine after long term therapy for macroprolactinomas: effect on plasma prolactin and tumor size. Clin Endocrinol 1991;34:175.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Passos, VQ, Souza, JJ, Musolino, NR, Bronstein, MD. Long-term follow-up of prolactinomas: normoprolactinemia after bromocriptine withdrawal. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002; 87:3578.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feigenbaum, SL, Downey, , Wilson, CB, et al. Transsphenoidal pituitary resection for preoperative diagnosis of prolactin-secreting pituitary adenoma in women: long term follow-up. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996;81:1711.Google ScholarPubMed
Randall, RV, Laws, ER Jr., Abboud, CF, et al. Transsphenoidal microsurgical treatment of prolactin-producing pituitary adenomas: results in 100 patients. Mayo Clin Proc 1983;58:108.Google ScholarPubMed
Serri, O, Rasio, E, Beauregard, H, et al. Recurrence of hyperprolactinemia after selective transsphenoidal adenomectomy in women with prolactinoma. N Engl J Med 1983;309:280.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schlechte, JA, Sherman, BM, Chapler, FK, et al. Long-term follow-up of women with surgically treated prolactin-secreting pituitary tumors. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1986;62:1296.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ciric, I, Ragin, A, Baumgartner, C, Pierce, D. Complications of transsphenoidal surgery: results of a national survey, review of the literature, and personal experience. Neurosurgery 1997;40:225.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Littley, MD, Shalet, SM, Reid, H, et al. The effect of external pituitary irradiation on elevated serum prolactin levels in patients with pituitary macroadenomas. Q J Med 1991;81:985.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tsagarakis, S, Grossman, A, Plowman, PN, et al. Megavoltage pituitary irradiation in the management of prolactinomas: long-term follow-up. Clin Endocrinol 1991;34:399.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Snyder, PJ, Fowble, BF, Schatz, NJ, et al. Hypopituitarism following radiation therapy of pituitary adenomas. Am J Med 1986;81:457.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×